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A HISTORY OF 

MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN 

EUROPE 



A HISTORY 



OF 



MEDIEVAL AND MODERN 
EUROPE 



BY 
HENRY E. BOURNE 

PROFESSOR IN THE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, WESTERN 
RESERVE UNIVERSITY; AUTHOR OF 'THE TEACH- 
ING OF HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE ELE- 
MENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL,' ETC. 



LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 

91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA 



o2 






\<\cft 



Copyright, 1905, by 
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, 



Fust Edition, October, 1905. Reprinted September, 1907: 
June, 1909. 



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Nortooorj Jjkrss 

J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

To the American pupil the history of Europe is important 
because it is also the early history of his own people. In 
the older Europe lie the beginnings of American civilization, 
institutions as well as religious customs, literature, and habits 
of thought. But it is difficult to explain the development of 
Europe since the downfall of the Roman Empire within the 
somewhat rigorous limits assigned to a text-book. A brief 
text-book has the advantage of making possible a larger use of 
books for supplementary reading, which are constantly increas- 
ing in numbers and utility. One of the conditions of brevity 
is the omission of many facts which are ordinarily explained 
or at least mentioned. The principle of selection adopted in 
the preparation of this book has been the value of the fact in 
explaining the Europe of the present day and in showing the 
course of its development. Emphasis has also been laid upon 
geographical facts in order that the geography of Europe al- 
ready studied in the elementary school may be reviewed and 
explained, as it must necessarily be in the study of the histori- 
cal facts which lie behind the present frontier lines or the 
condition of modern nations. 

The attempt has been made to narrate the history of the 
more important countries together in chronological order, in- 
stead of giving to each a separate treatment, and so obliging 
the reader to move forward and backward along the chrono- 
logical series and, by an unusual effort of attention, make the 
necessary correlation of events, or fail to gain an adequate con- 
ception of the progress of Europe as a whole. Many events 
in one country directly affected events in another or at least 
illustrated similar tendencies in thought or in institutions. 



vi PREFACE 

The result of the attempt to narrate the history of Europe in 
this way may occasionally seem to lack the compactness and 
clearness of a separate treatment, but it should possess the 
advantages of a larger unity, making intelligible what might 
otherwise seem the consequence of individual caprice or of 
chance. This method should also accustom the pupil to group 
events, in order by discovering their relations to gain more of 
their meaning. 

To the pictures and maps have been added explanations and 
descriptions which should render them more useful. Several 
of the maps are, with the consent of the publishers, reproduced 
with modifications from Freeman's Historical Geography of 
Europe. Two or three are based upon maps in Droy sen's 
Handatlas. In making modifications Lane-Poole's Historical 
Atlas of Modern Europe and Longnon's Atlas Historique cle la 
France have been constantly consulted. The author's thanks 
are due to Professor S. B. Platner for permission to use a 
picture of the Wall of Aurelian which appeared in his Ancient 
Rome. 

The author has been greatly assisted by the suggestions of 
Professor Edward G. Bourne, of Yale University, and of Dr. 
W. S. Robertson, of Western Reserve University, who have 
read the book in manuscript, and of Dr. E. J. Benton, of 
Western Reserve University, who has read the proof-sheets. 
No one of these gentlemen is, however, responsible for any 
errors which remain uncorrected. 

HENRY E. BOURNE. 
Cleveland, 
August 1, 1905. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction xv 

CHAPTER 

I. The Roman Empire in the Fourth Century . . 1 

II. The German Invasions 20 

III. The Church and the Mohammedans . . . .37 

IV. The Beginnings of New Peoples .... 53 
V. The Age of Charlemagne 66 

VI. Beginnings of Feudal Europe ..... 82 

VII. The New Europe, its Rulers and its Foes . . 99 

VIII. The Rise of the People 120 

IX. The Ruin of the Empire : The Growth of England 

and France 134 

X. Wars of Nations and Races: The Cry of Reform 

in the Church ........ 148 

XI. The Renaissance ........ 167 

XII. The Protestant Revolution 184 

XIII. The Struggle of the Faiths 204 

XIV. The Last Wars of Religion 225 

XV. The Puritan Revolution 241 

XVI. The Age of Louis XIV 259 

XVII. Downfall of Louis the Great 273 

XVIII. New Struggles for Supremacy ..... 288 

XIX. Colonial Empires Gained and Lost .... 299 

XX. The Enlightened Despots ...... 312 

XXI. From Reform to Revolution . . . . . 326 

XXII. The Revolution at War with Europe . . . 341 

XXIII. The Rise of Napoleon 356 

XXIV. The Conquest of Europe 368 

vii 



Vlll 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 



Reorganized Europe 

The Revolution of 1848 

A New Era of National Wars . 

Refounding the German Empire 

After the Great National Wars 



XXX. Last Decade of the Nineteenth Century 



PACK 

387 
403 
419 
434 
449 
464 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



(From photographs or prints unless otherwise indicated. Arranged 
in alphabetical order) 

PAGE 

Abbey of Montmajour 42 

Abbey of Mont-Saint-Michel 04 

Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) ......... 77 

Alcazar at Seville, The 124 

Amiens, Cathedral of 171 

Armada Ship 218 

Assignat, An (from MacLehose. From the Monarchy to the Be- 

public in France. By permission) . . . . . . 335 

Bastille, The (from Plan de Louis Bretez, dit Plan de Turgot, 1734) 328 
Bible, Wycliffe's (from Tout and Sullivan's Elementary History of 

England) 158 

Bismarck, Prince 435 

Bonaparte, Napoleon (from the portrait in the Versailles Museum) 361 

Calvin, John 197 

Canterbury Cathedral 131 

Carcassonne 23 

Carcassonne, The Causeway ........ 121 

Carmelite Monastery, The 345 

Castle of Falaise 103 

Castle of Montlhery 95 

Cathedral, Amiens 171 

Cathedral, Canterbury . . . . . . . . .131 

Cathedral, Notre Dame 365 

Cavour, Count di 426 

Chambery, Chateau of 283 

Charles I. of England (after a portrait by Van Dyck) . . . 242 

Charles V. (after a portrait by Titian) 190 

Chateau of Chambery 283 

Chateau of Chenonceaux 196 

Chateau Gaillard 136 

ix 



X LIST OF ILLUSTUATIOXS 

PAGE 

Chenonceaux, Chateau of 196 

Church of the Holy Sepulchre Ill 

Claudia, Ruins of the 6 

Clive, Robert (after a portrait by Nathaniel Dance) . . . 304 
Coligny, Gaspard de (the monument by Crauk, part of the apse of 

the ©ratoire at Paris) 215 

Commons, House of (from Gardiner's Student's History of England) 293 

Commons, House of, Contemporary View 455 

Cordova, Mosque of 50 

Council of Trent, The (from a painting ascribed to Titian) . . 207 
Cromwell, Oliver (after a portrait by Samuel Cooper, at Sidney 

Sussex College, Cambridge) 255 

Danton, G. J. (reproduced by permission from the portrait in " Life 

of Danton" by A. H. Beesley) 349 

Domesday Book (from Gardiner's Students History of England) . 105 

Elizabeth, Queen 210 

Erasmus (after a portrait by Holbein) 186 

Falaise, Castle of 103 

Fight between Armed and Mounted Knights of the Time of Henry 

III. (from Cott. Ms. Nero. D. i. f. 4) 141 

Frederick the Great 317 

Garibaldi (from an engraving by Holl from a photograph) . . 428 

Gimignano, S • . • 172 

Gladstone, William Ewart (from a portrait by Elliott and Fry) . 465 

Guizot, F. P. G. (from an engraving in Guizot's History of France) 405 
Gustavus II. , Adolphus (from an engraving after the picture by Sir 

A. Van Dyck) 235 

Hadrian, Wall of 2 

Henry IV. of France . 220 

Henry VIII. (after a picture belonging to the Earl of Warwick) . 194 

Holy Sepulchre, Church of the Ill 

Jeanne d'Arc, La Tour 160 

Kaaba, The (from a picture in " Bilder- Atlas zu Mekka ") . . 46 

Kossuth 412 

Lafayette, Marquis de 329 

Lafayette in later life (from an engraving by Freeman after an 

original by Levachez) 397 

Laud, William (from an old print) 246 

Leicester, Ruins of the Roman Wall at (from Gardiner's Students 

History of England) • .56 

Louis XIV. (from an engraving) 261 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI 

PAGE 

Louis XVI. (after a portrait by Duplessis) 337 

Louis XVI., Execution of (from Les Revolutions de Paris, a con- 
temporary newspaper) 347 

Liibeck 150 

Luther, Martin ' 188 

Marlborough, Duke of (from an engraving after the original by Sir 

Godfrey Kneller) 278 

Metternich, Prince 392 

Mirabeau, Comte de (from a steel engraving published in Paris) . 333 

Moltke, Count von 443 

Montlhery, Castle of 95 

Montmajour, Abbey of 42 

Mont-Saint-Michel, Abbey of 94 

Napoleon III. (from a French print) 414 

Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul (from the portrait in the Ver- 
sailles Museum) .......... 361 

Nelson, Lord (after a portrait by Abbott in the National Portrait 

Gallery) 369 

New College, Oxford 168 

Notre Dame, Paris 365 

Nuremberg ........... 175 

Palais Bourbon 467 

Pantheon, Rome, The ......... 9 

Peter the Great 278 

Philip II. (after a portrait by Titian) 208 

Pitt, William (after a portrait by Hoare) 303 

Puffing Billy (from Gardiner's Student's History of England) . 389 

Ravenna, Tomb of Theodoric at 29 

Richelieu (after the portrait by Champaigne in the Louvre) . . 237 
Robespierre (reproduced by permission from the portrait in Barras's 

Memoirs, ed. by G. Duruy) . 350 

Rochambeau, Comte de 315 

Rome, The Pantheon 9 

Rome, The Wall of (from Platner's Ancient Home, by permission) . 13 

Saint Sophia, Constantinople 32 

Saint Sophia — Interior 33 

Steamboat, An Early English (from TJie Instructor of 1833) . . 388 

Stein, Baron vom und zum (from an engraving published at Leipsic) 376 

Temple, The (from an old print) 344 

Thiers, Louis Adolphe 445 

Trent, The Council of (from a painting ascribed to Titian) . . 207 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Tuileries, The (from the plan of 1734, called the Plan de Turgot) . 332 

Versailles, Palace of 266 

Victor Emmanuel II. 421 

Victory, H. M. S. 370 

Vikings, A ship of the Northmen or (now in the University at Chris- 

tiania) 85 

Vincennes, Chateau of 152 

Wall of Hadrian 2 

Wall of Rome ' .13 

Wellington, Duke of (after a portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence) . 381 

Westminster Hall 251 

William I. 6f Germany 446 

William III. of England (after the portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller) 268 

Wycliffe's Bible 158 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

1. Physical Map facing xiv 

2. The Roman Empire in 395 a.d. Colored . . facing 1 

3. Europe, about 600 a.d. Colored .... facing 34 

4. Saracen Dominion at its Greatest Extent Westward, 750. 

Colored facing 49 

5. Europe, End of Seventh Century 62 

6. Italy in 814 70 

7. Empire of Charlemagne in 814, with the three subdivisions 

made in 843 79 

8. Lotharingia North of the Alps according to the Division of 843 . 83 

9. The Moslem Peril, 1090 110 

10. Extent of the Hohenstaufen Empire about 1180. Colored facing 129 

11. The Seven Electorates in the Fourteenth Century . . . 151 

12. Advance of the Turks. Colored .... facing 163 

13. Dominions of Charles V. prior to 1555. Colored . facing 193 

14. Division of Territory between Catholics and Protestants about 

1555 205 

15. Division of England, January, 1643 249 

16. Western Europe in 1660. Colored .... facing 254 

17. The Waning of the Turkish Power. Colored . . facing 276 

18. Settlements in 1713, 1714, 1720, 1721. Illustrating the division 

of the Spanish possessions and the advance of Russia . 282 

19. First Partition of Poland, 1772 308 

20. Boundaries of France. Colored .... facing 363 

21. The Settlement of 1814-1815. Gains of the principal states . 383 

22. Unification of Italy. Colored facing 428 

23. Prussian Conquests 439 

24. The Eastern Mediterranean since the Russo-Turkish War . 457 

25. The Colonies and Dependencies of Europe and the United 

States in 1900. Colored facing 469 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES 

PAGE 

Principal Descendants of Charlemagne 98 

Hugh Capet's Family . ' 98 

Family of William the Conqueror . . . . . . .119 

Heirs of Philip III. and Philip IV. of France 165 

Yorkist and Lancastrian Claimants to the Crown of England . . 183 

Hapsburg, Burgundian, Spanish Relationships 203 

Heirs of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. of England . . . .224 
Claim of Henry of Navarre, of the House of Bourbon, to the French 

Crown 224 

Claimants of the Spanish Heritage ....... 272 

Stuart and Hanoverian Families ....... 286 

Bourbon-Orleans Relationships ........ 402 



INTRODUCTION 

The Aim of History. — Some eminent men have disparaged 
the study of history because its facts cannot be systematized 
and the laws of the progress or decay of civilization deduced 
from them in the same manner and with the same exactness 
as the laws of physics and chemistry have been deduced from 
what are called chemical or physical facts. The causes of any 
single event, not to speak of the condition of a whole country 
at a particular time, are so many and so various that they can- 
not be isolated and examined as is the case with facts which 
belong to the world of natural science. Certain of them could 
not be measured exactly were it possible to study them sepa- 
rately. The decision of Robert E. Lee to resign his commis- 
sion in the United States Army and follow his State in her 
attempt to withdraw from the Union was momentous, but the 
weight of each of the reasons which influenced him could not 
be mechanically determined nor exactly estimated, nor could 
the resulting decision have been predicted with scientific 
certainty. Nevertheless, history offers at least partial ex- 
planations of even such events, which depend so much upon 
individual character. As for events of another sort, the 
method of electing a president in this country or the system 
of cabinet government in England, history explains how these 
came to be, and the exact manner in which they were developed 
shows, better than any other form of reasoning, what is the 
real meaning of the custom or institution and whether it is 
the result of passing intrigues or of tendencies lying deep in 
the experience of the people. Among the school studies those 
which concern mankind most closely, language or literature, 
political, economy or civil government, depend upon history for 
many services. Some literary works more than others require 



XVI INTRODUCTION 

an historical explanation, but it is safe to say that all are 
better understood if the age when they were produced is also 
understood. The relations of political economy and of civics 
to history are still closer. Political economy is becoming more 
and more what is called economic history, that is, the history 
of those activities of men which result in the production and 
distribution of wealth. Civics treats of the political activities 
of men in municipality, state, and nation, or describes the 
institutions which have grown out of these efforts. It needs 
no argument to prove the value of history in the study of such 
subjects ; it furnishes one of their principal methods of investi- 
gation as well as a multitude of illustrations of what they aim 
to explain. History cannot, therefore, be considered, as for- 
merly, a polite study, of little utility save to amuse the leisure 
of the idle or to offer an occasional anecdote to enliven con- 
versation. 

Supplementary Reading. — History will not perform these 
services if historical knowledge is limited to what may be 
learned from the text-book. A text-book like this, which 
attempts to explain fifteen hundred years of European devel- 
opment, can do little more than summarize the most important 
events, awaken an interest in such facts, and suggest lines of 
further inquiry. The pupil should consider his study of his- 
tory in school mainly as the beginning of a systematic course 
of reading which is to be one of the sources of instruction and 
intellectual pleasure of his later years. The text-book will 
furnish a temporary framework for facts, to be enlarged and 
improved as his knowledge increases. During schooldays he 
should also learn how to use other books and should acquire 
the habit of reading historical works of real literary interest. 
Affixed to each chapter of this book are two lists of books, — 
brief manuals, convenient for obtaining more detailed state- 
ments or further explanations of what is alluded to in the 
text, and larger works, many of them chosen from permanent 
historical literature. It is not expected that the pupil shall 
look up all the references suggested under " Further Study." 



INTRODUCTION xvii 

Supplementary reading to be made effective must be under 
careful individual direction. It is better that pupils be sent 
to these books to search for answers to a particular query, or 
to obtain different points of view about an event or policy, or 
more details of a special incident. If a student is prompted 
by personal interest to do this " outside " reading indepen- 
dently, so much the better, but it should not be made a uni- 
form requirement. Many of the books referred to are of such 
a character that they will be useful primarily in assisting the 
teacher rather than the pupil. 

Selections from the Sources. — The books most commonly re- 
ferred to under " Further Study " are collections of passages 
taken from what are called " original sources," that is, from 
documents, letters, or other writings which appeared near the 
time at which the event touched upon occurred. Occasionally 
the writing may be a part of the event, as Pope Urban' s speech 
at Clermont was a good part of the origin of the First Crusade. 
As the selections in such books have been made with the 
needs of the pupil and the requirements of the subject both in 
mind, these books are, on the whole, the most useful for sup- 
plementary reading. It is not expected that the pupil shall 
become an historical investigator or that he shall acquire any 
large part of his knowledge from original material, but in these 
selections he will often find the best illustrations of the topics 
he is studying, and presented in a form which adds a peculiar 
interest to what is said. Selections from the Koran make 
Mohammedanism more real than do ordinary explanations. 
The explanations are necessary, for without them the pupil 
could do little with original material of some kinds, but this 
material may add an element of actuality or bring out an in- 
teresting point of view. In using these selections it is advis- 
able for the teacher to give specific questions for search. 
Vague reading here is of as little value as vague reading of 
anything else. The results of these inquiries should be writ- 
ten in note-books, in order that they may be made concise and 
clear. 



XVlll INTRODUCTION 

The Use of Dates. — Chronology and. geography have always 
been called the eyes of history. Dates are primarily useful in 
keeping the elementary facts of a period in their exact time 
relations until their less obvious causal relations can be studied 
with care. A few dates are of such importance that they 
should be fixed permanently in the memory. Many of the 
more significant dates are mentioned in the list at the end 
of each chapter. 

History and Geography. — In the study of history it is 
necessary to refer constantly to maps, — to the map of the 
world as it is to-day, because this is a summary of many of 
the consequences the causes of which history explains ; to 
maps showing how the world or some portion of it appeared 
after important changes had been made in the boundaries of 
peoples; and to relief or physical maps which give an idea 
of different countries, whether flat or mountainous, waterless 
or full of rivers. There are also maps which show how the 
world looked to geographers at the time when they were 
drawn, in many cases while knowledge of the earth was still 
incomplete. Maps made in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
turies enable us to appreciate the difficulties of navigating 
unknown seas or of sailing along coasts not yet noted on the 
charts. The representation given in Map 2, of this volume, of 
the world as it appeared to Ptolemy reveals the fact that the 
Romans had conquered about all of the lands of which they 
had definite knowledge. In using historical maps it should 
be remembered that as changes in boundary lines have been 
made frequently, a small collection of maps can portray the 
situation only after important incidents like an unusually 
great war or the emigration of peoples. M. Longnon in his 
Historical Atlas of France includes seventeen maps of Gaul for 
the period between the later years of Chlodwig and the acces- 
sion of Charlemagne. Only such large atlases can give with 
satisfactory completeness even the important changes. In this 
volume several maps embody a comparison between the situa- 
tion at one period and that at another period sufficiently 



INTRODUCTION XIX 

remote to show the final settlement for the territory in ques- 
tion. By such comparisons it is possible to understand the 
gradual process of the growth of modern Europe and to per- 
ceive the relation of this modern world to the ancient and the 
mediaeval world. 

Influence of Geography upon History. — It was not until the 
eighteenth century that thoughtful men realized the extent to 
which the history of different peoples has been influenced by 
such geographical conditions as climate, character of the soil, 
minerals, waterways, and nearness to the sea. England, with 
great deposits of coal and iron close to one another, with rivers 
deep enough for ocean-going ships, surrounded by seas which 
are highways to the gates of other lands as well as means of 
defence for herself, seems destined by nature to become a 
manufacturing and trading country, provided with vast fleets 
for commerce and for war. It would be a mistake to explain 
everything by such natural reasons, for much depends also 
upon the characteristics of the people who occupy the region. 
In most cases the inhabitants of a country already had a 
developed character when they settled in it, so that their suc- 
cesses or failures can be attributed in part only to the region 
itself. Geographical reasons are, however, so important that 
they should be considered at every step. 

Geography of Europe. — A glance at Map 1 shows that Europe 
is a peninsula thrust southwestward between the seas and 
narrowing toward Spain, its terminus. This peninsula, the 
total area of which is only slightly greater than that of the 
United States, has been the scene of nearly all the history 
alluded to in the present volume. It is true there is a Greater 
Europe, wherever Europeans have carried their civilization or 
have won the mastery, but this larger history has been touched 
only incidentally. Several of the features of Europe's geog- 
raphy have strikingly influenced its history. Before the 
peninsula broadens into Spain its width is only two hundred 
and fifty miles. A frontier so short, combined with the prac- 
tical impassability of the Pyrenees except at the eastern and 



XX INTRODUCTION 

western ends, separates Spain from the rest of the continent 
almost as much as the English Channel separates Great Britain. 
The Channel has affected the fortunes of the English at every 
turn. Movements like the French Revolution, which broke 
all other barriers, could not cross the Channel. In later days 
it has enabled the English to hold aloof from European alli- 
ances, relying upon a fleet strong enough to dominate the 
" narrow seas." Spain's aloofness is not an equally " splendid 
isolation," and it is a question whether Spain would ever have 
played an important part in European affairs had not the 
possessions of her monarchs in Italy and the Netherlands, 
their marriage alliance with the Hapsburgs, and their cham- 
pionship of the Church drawn them out of their isolation. 
The situation of France is also full of meaning. Between 
two seas, she has been part of both Mediterranean and north- 
ern worlds. One of the most thoroughly Romanized of the 
provinces of the Empire, she has been foremost repeatedly in 
the enterprises of the later Europe. In northern Europe one 
unbroken plain stretches from the North Sea to the Urals. 
Here is the secret of the fate of Poland. Without a compactly 
organized government and a strong army she fell a prey to 
better-organized neighbors. Looking across the Mediterra- 
nean, it is clear that the belt of country between the deserts 
and the sea is so narrow that it could not support a popula- 
tion large enough to control its own destiny. It was doomed 
to be a land of colonies and the spoil of conquerors from the 
time when the Phoenicians founded Carthage to the occupa- 
tion of Algiers and Tunis by the French and of Egypt by the 
English. The rivers of Europe, especially the Rhine and the 
Danube, have had an important part in the migration of 
peoples and in commerce, and have served also as military 
frontiers. The Danube was the ordinary route by which in- 
vaders — the Goths, the Huns, the Magyars, and the Mongols 
— marched toward western Europe. The Magyars, or Hungari- 
ans, were finally driven back and settled in the great Danubian 
plain, becoming the defenders of the West against the Turk. 



INTRODUCTION xxi 

Natural Boundaries. — It is impossible to allude here even to 
the principal influences geography has exercised upon the his- 
tory of European peoples or states or cities. To gain an ade- 
quate understanding of the subject, teacher and student should 
consult such books as The Relations of Geography and History, 
by H. B. George. But there is one other topic so important 
as to require brief comment. The limits of certain nations 
are apparently marked off by nature, — the English by the 
Channel, the Spanish by the Pyrenees, the Italians by the 
Alps, and, to some extent, the Hungarians by the Carpathian 
Mountains. If the history of these and other peoples be con- 
sidered attentively, many events seem to work together to em- 
phasize the controlling influence of such natural boundaries. 
The Channel was a good reason why the Norman English kings 
should not retain territories in western France. The Pyrenees 
served partly to explain why Rousillon was ceded to France 
in 1659. The absence of such clearly marked boundaries also 
explains why the French and the Germans have struggled so 
long over the region west of the Rhine, and, as already re- 
marked, why Prussia, Austria, and Russia succeeded in parti- 
tioning Poland. Nevertheless, it is unsafe to draw inferences 
hurriedly from physical features which apparently indicate 
good boundaries. Throughout the Middle Ages rulers paid no 
attention to such influences ; they acquired fiefs by marriage 
or conquest wherever it was possible. The latest history of 
Europe shows in the acquisition of colonial j>ossessions a simi- 
lar defiance of physical restraints. Moreover Italy, instead of 
being a united country, remained a " geographical expression " 
for over a thousand years. The eastern ranges of the Alps 
spread out fanshape into the Danubian valley, and from the 
time of the Visigoths have offered to invaders an easy entrance 
into Italy. The Swiss geographically belong to two or three 
different countries, but remain loyal to one another and to their 
republic. The argument from natural boundaries was used by 
the French during the Revolutionary Wars as an excuse for 
annexing the region west of the Rhine, although a river is not 



xxil INTRODUCTION 

a real barrier, except in the military sense, and the people on 
both sides are likely to show the same characteristics. In 
studying this or any other geographical fact it is necessary to 
take into account all the conditions which influence the result. 



REFERENCES — BOOKS USEFUL FOR TEACHERS 

Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of History and Civics. Longmans. 

Committee of Seven, History in Schools. Macmillan. 

George, H. B., The Relations of History and Geography. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press. 

Hinsdale, B. A., How to Teach and Study History. Appletou. 

Mace, W. H., Method in History. Ginn. 

New England History Teachers' Association, A History Syllabus for 
Secondary Schools. Heath. 

New England History Teachers' Association, Historical Sources in 
Schools. Macmillan. ♦ 




THE ROMAN EMPIRE 
IN 395 A.D. 

Included the parts of modern Europe, Asia and 
Africa within the red lines. North of the frontier 
dwelt German or Slavic tribes 

The Empire was divided into four prefectures, 
these into dioceses, one of which is indicated within 
black lines on the map of France and Western Ger- 
many. Each diocese was divided into provinces, of 
which an example is indicated by the broken lines 
within the diocese of Gaul. 



Longitude East from Greenwich 



MEDIEVAL AND MODERN 
HISTORY 



CHAPTER I. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

1. The Roman World. — Never since the fourth century of 
the Christian era has the civilized world been united under 
one government. There are single countries as large as the 
Roman Empire, and the world includes lands unknown to the 
Romans, but they alone have been able to boast that all peoples 
save the outer barbarians were joined with them in one great 
state. This dominion was the result of victorious campaigns 
pushed forward from land to land by the Republic and com- 
pleted by the Empire. It included what is now England, 
France, a part of Germany, Spain, the southern portion of the 
Austro-Hungarian empire, the Balkan states south of the 
Danube, the Turkish empire, Italy and Greece, Egypt and 
northern Africa. Although the peoples which dwelt in these 
widely scattered regions — Syrians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, 
Celts, Germans — were well-nigh as different from one another 
as their modern successors, they were bound together for two or 
three centuries by ties even stronger than the courage and the 
might of the Roman legions. Rome had robbed them of their 
independence, but in return she had given them orderly gov- 
ernment, freedom from endless petty wars, entrance into a 
community of peoples which shared all those ways of living, 
customs, laws, and ideas, which together we call Graeco-Roman 
civilization. At first the conquered had been treated as sub- 

1 



2 ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

jects, but afterward they had been raised to the level of 
citizenship. The name Roman ceased to mean a native of the 
city by the Tiber, or even of Italy ; it became equally applica- 
ble to the dweller in London, Constantinople, or Alexandria. 
There were many reasons why this union of neighboring peo- 
ples as provinces under a single imperial rule should endure, 
but there were also causes which were working its ruin. 




One of the Defences of the Empire. 

Wall of Hadrian (117-L38) ; also ascribed to Septimius Severus (193-211). 
Extends from the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Firth, 73^ miles ; height 12 feet 
(with parapet, 16), thickness about 8 feet. Material, concrete, faced with 
square blocks. On the north a ditch, 10 to 15 feet deep, about 32 feet wide at top. 
Along the line, 18 walled camps, watch towers and "mile-castles" between. 



2. Bonds of Union, Routes. — Sometimes the boundaries of 
a nation are traced by bodies of water like the English Chan- 
nel, or by mountain ranges like the Alps and the Pyrenees. 
Such natural barriers also protect the union of peoples when 
once this has been accomplished. The Roman Empire had no 
bulwarks of this sort; but since its provinces lay about the 
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, it possessed water routes 



BONDS OF UNION 3 

which were an almost equally good means of securing its unity. 
To guard these routes the government organized several war 
fleets, notably those of Misenum, Ravenna, Egypt, Syria, the 
Black Sea, Britain, and the Rhine. But it did not think such 
natural highways were enough. Just as modern governments 
have built railways in order to be able to move their armies 
rapidly to any place on the frontier or to bind distant parts 
of their territory together, so the Romans covered the Empire 
with a network of great roads. These roads were pushed 
straight over hills and across marshes, teaching the peoples 
along the route the bold and tireless energy of Rome. They 
were paved with heavy blocks of dressed stone, laid upon 
foundations two or three feet deep, and so solidly constructed 
that long sections of them still remain. At convenient inter- 
vals relays of horses were stationed, and vehicles were in 
readiness in order that messages and officers could be sent 
forward rapidly to distant places. Private wagons were also 
provided for merchants and travellers. So well managed were 
the roads that merchandise was generally carried by them 
rather than by sea. It was not until the middle of the 
nineteenth century, when the railways were built, that com- 
munication between different parts of the world again became 
as comfortable and rapid. In France, at least, the new system 
of national roads and of railways is based largely upon the 
Roman system. For Gaul the principal centre was Lyons, 
which was reached from Italy by three routes across the Alps. 
From Lyons roads branched in all directions, — northward to 
the Rhine, northwestward to the Channel, westward to the 
lower Loire and the Garonne, and southward to Marseilles. 
Through Aries and Nimes ran the more direct road from Italy 
to Spain. In Britain four roads centred at London and three 
at Chester. 

3. Union through Language. — The use of Latin, the language 
of the Romans, even more than the system of roads, showed 
how all the conquered peoples were becoming parts of one vast 
community. East of the Adriatic Sea Latin never took the 



4 BOM AN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

place of Greek as the language of common life. Indeed, the 
spread of Greek was furthered by the peace which the Romans 
brought and by the ease of communication under their rule, so 
that the eastern half of the Empire became more and more 
Greek or Hellenic in ideas and sympathies. Side by side with 
Greek, Latin was used as an official language. In the West, 
Latin had no such unconquered rival. It early became the 
language of Africa and Spain. Its struggle with Celtic in 
Gaul continued longer, but even before Latin had become the 
language of the common people it was studied eagerly by 
educated men who were soon famous for their skilful use of 
it in formal speech. In the end Celtic was so completely 
forgotten that in modern French there are only twenty-six 
words of Celtic origin. Although the government did not 
organize any system of public elementary schools, the provin- 
cials were so eager to have their children taught that many 
private schools were opened. Secondary schools and schools 
of higher education were directly encouraged by the emperors, 
who ordered the cities to maintain them. The school at 
Marseilles was famous for its physicians, and that at Bordeaux 
for its training in the use of elegant Latin. Youths came even 
from Italy to attend these schools. Athens was the seat of 
a still greater school, at which, as in Rome, the imperial gov- 
ernment supported professors. Educated men felt at home in 
all parts of the Graeco-Roman world. A glance at the history 
of some of the literary men of the later Empire illustrates this 
fact. Ulpian and Papinian, two of the ablest Roman jurists, 
were natives of Syria. Of the three most prominent poets of 
the fourth century, one was an Asiatic, another a Spaniard, and 
the third a Gaul. The best history of the time was written by 
Ammianus, a native of Antioch, who, after an active career as 
a soldier, lived in Rome and wrote his work in Latin. Augus- 
tine, the most influential theologian of the period, was a north 
African. Jerome, born on the confines of Italy and Greece, 
completed the Vulgate, his immortal translation of the Bible 
into Latin, in a convent at Bethlehem. But east of the Adri- 



BONDS OF UNION 5 

atic the Greek language and Greek ideas were making more 
progress than Latin, and in the West the Latin that the com- 
mon people learned was not the language of Cicero and Caesar, 
but the ordinary language of conversation on the streets, which 
£he soldiers and emigrants had taken with them to the prov- 
inces, and which later developed into the earliest forms of 
French, Spanish, and Italian. 

4. Law. — Another bond of union was the Roman law. This 
was the most lasting benefit conferred by the Empire, because 
upon it were to be based the laws of southern and western 
Europe. At first it was a privilege to be judged according to 
this law, but when citizenship was granted to all the provin- 
cials, there was no longer any reason to administer two kinds 
of law, one for Romans and one for natives, since all had offi- 
cially been made Romans. Meanwhile the law itself was 
being improved by the judges whose duty it was to decide the 
cases brought before them. Punishments became less severe, 
the lot of the slave was bettered, women and children gained 
more rights; in short, this system of law was winning the 
name so often applied to it since, of " written reason." 

5. Manner of Life. — The Romans, like the Greeks before 
them, carried everywhere the art of living in cities. In some 
ways these cities have not yet been surpassed. They were 
adorned with splendid public baths, furnished with an abun- 
dance of pure water, brought in stone aqueducts often from 
distant hills. One of these aqueducts, built to supply Nimes, 
still spans the river Gard. The broken arches of some which 
supplied Rome still stretch across the Campagna. Many of the 
temples, afterward converted into Christian churches, remain, 
even in ruin, the wonder and inspiration of modern builders. 
The theatres also were public buildings, but unfortunately the 
plays were not always wholesome in their teaching. 

6. The Empire and the Church. — Rome was tolerant toward 
the religions of the peoples which she conquered. With the 
establishment of the Empire it became customary to look upon 
the emperor as a god, the embodiment of the genius of Rome 



6 



ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 



which had brought peace, security, and many other advantages 
to the world. The Christians refused to join in this worship 
and organized secretly into churches, although all secret associa- 
tions were contrary to law. They were therefore looked upon 
as disobedient subjects. Since they attended no festivals at 
which the ancient gods of Greece and Rome were honored, 
their neighbors sometimes believed them to be unsocial and 



•'-'■ •' \ ■ '■ ■■ • 



Ruins of the Claudia. 

An aqueduct completed by the Emperor Claudius in 52 a.d. 
These arches extended originally more than seven miles across the 
plain to the hills. The structure was nearly a hundred feet high, 

even haters of the human race. But the spread of Christianity, 
first among the poor and obscure, and afterward among the 
higher and more influential classes, could be checked neither 
by the outburst of popular hatred nor by the spasmodic 
attempts of the emperors to punish with death those con- 
victed of being Christians. This policy was changed by the 
imperial government in 311, and Christianity was reluctantly 
recognized as a legal religion. A year or two afterward the 
Emperor Constantine carried out more effectively the policy of 



VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY 7 

toleration. Later in the centnry all other religious worship 
was forbidden. The old religions died hard, defending them- 
selves longest among the countrymen, or pagani. For this 
reason they came to be called "pagan." By the end of the 
fourth century the Christian Church was highly organized, with 
bishops of cities, metropolitan bishops of provincial capitals, 
and patriarchs of five great cities, chiefly m the East. The 
patriarchate most honored was that of Rome, which, it was 
held, had been founded by St. Peter and St. Paul, and of which 
St. Peter had been the first bishop. As soon as the Greek 
thinkers came to look upon Christianity as a true religion, they 
were eager to define exactly what each one should believe 
about God and about Jesus Christ. The teachers of the West, 
less anxious to argue about such questions, set themselves to 
explain just how men might become Christians, and how they 
might be free from the evil that was in the world. A great 
council was held at Nicaea, in 325, under the presidency of 
Constantine, to settle the question of the relation of Christ to 
God. This council drew up a creed, which, after some changes, 
became the Nicene creed. Christians who refused to accept 
the doctrine about Christ set forth in this creed — namely, that 
Christ is in being the same and coequal with God — were called 
Arians, because Arius, a priest of Alexandria, held a view 
which the council condemned. What the council of Nicaea 
did for this doctrine, Augustine did for the doctrines of Chris- 
tian character and conduct, so that by the middle of the fifth 
century the beliefs commonly called Christianity had all been 
carefully explained in books and in the acts of councils. 
Although the victory of Christianity seemed to give to the 
Empire another bond of union, in reality it did not strengthen 
the feeling of loyalty or gratitude toward the imperial rule. 
It taught men to regard their fate in another world as more 
important than their condition on earth. It weakened the 
prejudice against the barbarians, who might also be fellow- 
Christians. It founded a government of bishops and councils 
which eventually rivalled the government of the emperors. 



8 ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

7. The Imperial Government. — The emperors of the fourth 
century were very different from Augustus, who had tried 
simply to play the part of the first citizen of Rome, though 
he had held those magistracies which would enable him to 
control the government. His successors had become monarch s 
in the full sense of the word and had surrounded themselves 
with the ceremony and the splendor of eastern despots. The 
senate, which had been the actual ruler of the Republic, and 
with which the early emperors had shared their power, was 
hardly more than a body of nobles enjoying high privileges 
and freed from the most burdensome taxes. Distinguished 
men in the provinces were raised to senatorial rank as a favor 
or as a reward. The ancient difference in rights between 
Roman and provincial gave place to a new difference due to 
office or rank granted by the emperor. Such rank was marked 
by titles much like those which go with nobility or high 
office in some modern countries. The titles count and duke 
began to be used. The chief officials were the prefects of the 
four prefectures into which the Roman world was divided. 
Under them were the vicars of the thirteen dioceses, and 
under these the governors of one hundred and eighteen prov- 
inces. For the ordinary citizen the most important officials 
were not these public men but the subordinates or clerks, who 
held their positions for life, and who, from their knowledge of 
the way in which government business had been done, were 
more likely to control their nominal chiefs than to be con- 
trolled by them, especially as even so great an officer as a pre- 
fect held his position only a short time. Thus the Empire 
came to be managed by a bureaucracy, that is, by officers or 
employees of the bureaus or commissions to which all public 
business was intrusted. 

8. Burden of Empire. —It has been said that the world has 
never been so happy and prosperous as in the second century 
of the Empire. At that time the Empire meant peace and 
justice for all, and its cost to the ordinary citizen was not bur- 
densome. After the turmoil of the next century had ruined 



BURDEN OF EMPIRE 9 

many provinces, and after the reorganization of the imperial 
monarchy by Diocletian and his successors had increased the 
expenses, the situation steadily grew worse. The total sums 
of money demanded of the taxpayers were not greater than 
those voluntarily raised by some modern peoples, but the bur- 




Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y. 

The Pantheon, Rome. 

Built by Hadrian, 120-124. The diameter of the dome is a little over 142 feet, 
or greater than that of any other dome. In the year 609 this Roman temple 
was dedicated as the church of S. Maria ad Marty res. It was afterward 
called S. Maria Rotonda. Now used as a burial place of the kings of Italy. 

den was made heavier by the wasteful method of collecting 
the money, by the frequent efforts of officials to enrich them- 
selves at the expense of the taxpayers, and by special favors 
granted to rich and influential men excusing them from pay- 
ment, and in this way putting the burden upon their poorer 
neighbors. Occasionally the owner of a great estate with a 



10 BOMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

small army of servants defied the tax-gatherer to enter his 
domains. Besides the taxes paid in money there were others 
paid by furnishing the army or imperial officials with pro- 
visions, with transportation, and with labor on roads or fortifi- 
cations. Such taxes " in kind " had grown out of the scarcity 
of money and the depreciation of the coins in circulation. This 
shows that society was falling back upon a system of barter — 
what the political economists call a " natural economy" as 
distinguished from a money economy. It also showed that 
the community was fast becoming unable to bear the expenses 
of the Empire. 

9. Crushing Load of the Middle Class. — One of the conse- 
quences of this system of taxation was the ruin of the well- 
to-do middle class. Each city, like all ancient cities, included 
a large amount of territory, often larger than the average 
American county. Landowners who held at least sixteen 
acres belonged to the local senate or curia. To them was as- 
signed the heavy task of collecting the taxes. The sum for 
each city was fixed by the government and must be collected 
by the curials from the citizens or paid out of their own 
resources. As the task became more difficult their only means 
of escape was to be elevated to the rank of imperial senators, 
which would free them from such duties. They could not 
change their residence nor sell their property. The burden 
descended from father to son. Some sought to escape it by 
taking refuge among the barbarians. 

10. The City's Defender. — Oppression of the taxpayers went 
on in spite of the attempts of emperors to check it. After 
364 each city was provided with a defensor, a sort of attorney 
whose business it was to guard the interests of the city and 
sometimes to protect the lower classes against the exactions of 
the curia. Occasionally, also, the defensor acted the part of 
government agent in holding the curials to their disastrous 
task. Later the defensor was often replaced by the bishop, 
who naturally gained influence and power by guarding his 
flock against oppression. 



ENSLAVEMENT OF WORK 11 

11. The Enslavement of Work. — The local senators were 
not the only ones whose liberty disappeared as the needs of 
the Empire became greater. The associations or corporations 
of artisans and tradesmen which had originally been formed 
for social purposes or to insure the members a decent burial 
were used as a means of more readily exacting the tax which 
fell upon persons of this class or of compelling the perform- 
ance of work necessary for the welfare of the community. For 
example, the pig and cattle merchants and the bakers who 
provided food for the public distributions made at Rome 
and Constantinople were treated as castes from which it was 
impossible to withdraw. So, also, were the boatmen and the 
conductors of transports. The workmen in the imperial mints, 
armories, and mines were even branded with a red-hot iron to 
guard against their escape. Only by chaining each man to 
his task could the unwieldy fabric of the Empire be kept in 
place. 

12. The Enslavement of Land. — The farmer, also, in most 
cases, ceased to be an independent owner of land and was 
partly enslaved. Sometimes he gave up his title to his rich 
neighbor in order to be protected against the tax-gatherers. 
He did this, too, when invasion and local disorder exposed him 
to ruin. Often it was the only way to extricate himself from 
the burden of debt which the hardness of the times laid upon 
him. Unfortunately, also, owners of great domains discovered 
that they could seize these little farms without being called 
to account by the distant prefect to whose jurisdiction alone 
they were subject in criminal matters. All such abandon- 
ments of title were accomplished by a species of fictitious sale, 
in order to avoid openly breaking the laws which forbade such 
transactions. The free farmers who in this way ceased to be 
owners of their farms continued to cultivate them. Their 
position was similar to that of other freemen, called coloni, or 
settlers, to whom the landlord had granted a farm. The gov- 
ernment, in order to make sure that each piece of land paid 
its due share of the taxes, took account of such tenants and 



12 BOM AN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

compelled them and their children after them to remain per- 
manently upon the land. They also lost the privilege of 
marrying freely outside the estate, for snch a marriage would 
mean that some other landlord had lost one of his tenants. 
There were other coloni, the freedmen, who differed from the 
free coloni only in that they could not bequeath property, and 
the slaves who had been settled upon a portion of the estate 
in order that they might work better than did the ordinary 
slave under the overseer. These changes were dragging free- 
men down toward slavery and pulling slaves up toward free- 
dom. The two met on the level which in the Middle Ages is 
called serfdom. 

13. Those who Profited. — The only man who continued to 
prosper while the Empire was growing weaker was the rich 
noble. Wealth more and more meant landed property. This 
was cultivated either by slaves or by coloni. A large estate was 
an almost independent community, with its villages of coloni, 
its great courtyard surrounded by houses for slaves, a prison, 
barns, storehouses, shops, a mill, a winepress, and a forge, and 
at some distance the mansion of the lord, a house provided 
with spacious rooms, dining halls, and libraries, promenades, 
surrounded by extensive gardens, often overlooking a charming 
country-side. It was only when the invasions began or bands 
of marauders threatened their peace that these mansions were 
transformed into fortified strongholds. The owners were not 
warriors like the ancient Romans. They disdained service in 
the army. They were fond of literature and the arts, and their 
efforts to cultivate them, gave to later Roman civilization an 
appearance of refinement and intellectual energy which hid 
from view the signs of weakness and decay. 

14. Defence of Empire. — Since the freemen were sinking 
toward slavery and the nobles had lost that taste for war and 
conquest which carried the Roman eagles over the ancient 
world, the sole safeguard of the Empire was the regular army. 
This consisted of about four hundred thousand men, some of 
them settled in communities along the frontier and intrusted 



DEFENCE OF EMPIRE 



13 



with its ordinary defence. These soldier settlers were fre- 
quently drawn from some German tribe that had entered the 
service of the Empire and had found its reward in such a grant 
of land. The more active portion of the army was kept in 
o-arrison in towns from which detachments could be moved 




The Wall of Rome. 

Built by the Emperor Aurelian (270-275), rebuilt by Honorius (395- 
423). Constructed of brick-faced concrete ; thickness, 12 or 13 feet ; 
height, from 29 to 58 feet, according to the slope of the grouud. 

rapidly toward threatened points on the frontier. All im- 
portant towns, even those in the interior, were surrounded by 
walls, for after the invasions of the third century the frontier 
was no longer secure. 

15. Beyond the Frontier. — The greatest danger lay on the 
northern frontier from the mouth of the Rhine to the mouth 



14 BOM AN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

of the Danube. There had been campaigns, some of them 
disastrous, against the Persians in the upper valleys of the 
Tigris and the Euphrates, but it was only the Germans who 
were likely to become actual invaders. The principal tribes 
toward the end of the century were the Franks on the lower 
Rhine, and north of them the Saxons, the Burgundians on the 
Main, the Alanianni between the upper Rhine and the upper 
Danube, the Vandals between the Danube and the Theiss, the 
Visigoths north of the lower Danube, and still further east 
the Ostrogoths. Several of these names reappear in the 
modern geographical names, — France, Franconia, Saxony, 
Essex, Burgundy, and in Allemagne, the French name for 
Germany. 

16. German Immigrants. — The Germans were not strangers 
within the Roman Empire. Two centuries before, Tacitus, a 
great Roman historian, had sought to chastise Roman vices 
by holding up the picture of German virtues. Ceesar, also, a 
hundred and fifty years still earlier, had written about the Ger- 
mans. From time to time Germans had entered the army, 
either singly or as tribes of confederates or foederati. Some 
of them had risen to high rank. Stilicho, the greatest general 
in the fifth century, was a Vandal. German fashions were 
much admired by the Romans. As the population of the 
Empire decreased, thousands of Germans had been given 
vacant lands within its limits. In Gaul many became coloni 
on the large estates. In the eastern provinces the masons, 
porters, and water-carriers were mostly Goths. 

17. Germans at Home. — The relations of the German peo- 
ples to the Empire were so close that in all the borderland 
Roman ways of living began to be customary. The words 
which described these things also were adopted by the Ger- 
mans, and have remained in their language to this day. They 
had already learned to dwell in settled communities and to 
cultivate the soil. It is probable that the freeman owned 
simply his house and the land immediately about it, and that 
the land which he planted was assigned to him each year, or 



THE GERMANS 15 

at the end of a period of years. As with all early peoples, the 
chief wealth was in cattle. The men loved war, and from 
early youth were trained to endure its hardships. To the 
Roman they seemed tall, fair, and of a fierce countenance. 
To their simple virtues they unhappily joined some rude 
vices, especially drunkenness and gambling. Men staked even 
their own freedom, although it took a family once reduced 
to slavery three generations to rise again to full freedom. 
To the Romans each tribe seemed a civitas, or city-state. 
Although there were kings, most of the power belonged to the 
freemen, who met from time to time in an assembly and either 
rejected what was proposed to them by shouts of disapproval 
or clashed their arms together in token of acceptance. They 
could even depose their king. Their leader in war was often 
not the king himself, but some bold warrior chosen because of 
his prowess in battle. These men the Romans called duces or 
dukes. Occasionally the office descended from father to son. 
Besides the kings and the dukes there were other nobles, 
although they decreased in numbers and influence as the 
power of the kings was strengthened by wars and by 
expeditions. 

18. German Ideas of Justice and of God. — The Germans 
did not have the same ideas of justice as the Romans. Their 
crude customs set so high a value upon personal liberty that 
though a man had killed his neighbor he was not punished like 
a modern criminal. The family could, however, take ven- 
geance upon the aggressor or any of his family. Each sort of 
man in the tribe — noble, freeman, or slave — had his price 
or wergeld fixed by law. If the aggressor were ready to pay 
the wergeld or damages to the injured family, and the family 
was willing to accept this, the wrong was righted. Other 
wrongs were settled in the same way. If the parties in a 
quarrel were willing to bring the affair before the assembly 
presided over by a chosen chief or by the king, the truth was 
learned through a solemn oath supported by the friends of the 
parties or by various ordeals. According to one of these 



16 BOM AN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

ordeals the accused man was to thrust his hand into boiling 
water, and if after a certain time the arm showed signs of 
healing he was considered innocent. By another, both accused 
and accuser were to tight before the judges, and the victor's 
statement was accepted as true. Like all European peoples, 
the Germans worshipped the great forces of nature, the sun- 
light and the storm, and the mysterious beauty of the earth. 
The names of several gods have been preserved to mark our 
week days, — Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. 

19. The Christian Conquest of the Germans. — Not long 
after Christianity had been legalized in the Empire it was 
also taught among the Visigoths north of the Danube by 
Bishop Ulphilas, a child, it is said, of Christians taken captive 
in an earlier Gothic raid. When Ms followers were persecuted 
by their heathen fellow-tribesmen, they gained permission to 
cross the river and settle within the Empire. Ulphilas had 
been ordained a bishop in 341 when Arianism was favored 
at Constantinople, so that he taught his Gothic converts this 
doctrine of the relation of Christ to God. The result was that 
the later Romans detested the Goths not only as invaders and 
plunderers, but as heretics and enemies of the true Church. 
As Christianity passed from the Goths to other German tribes, 
Arianism became the general form of belief held by all the 
Germans save the Franks. The work of Ulphilas was so far- 
reaching chiefly because he had given the Gothic language a 
written form, and had translated into it the Bible, except the 
books of Kings, which he feared would strengthen the war- 
like spirit. A manuscript of this Bible still exists and is the 
earliest example of a Germanic language. 

20. Revolt of the Visigothic Federates. — In the latter 
part of the fourth century the loosely organized Gothic king- 
dom was attacked by the Huns, a people of shepherds and 
marauders which had wandered from northern Asia across the 
Ural Mountains into the valle}^ of the Volga. The Ostrogoths 
were conquered, but two hundred thousand Visigoths in 376 
sought refuge within the Empire behind the Danube. They 



BE VOLT OF VISIGOTHS 17 

were granted lands on condition of serving as foederati. Un- 
fortunately, they were so ill-treated by the Roman officials that 
they soon rose in revolt and began to lay waste the whole 
region. At a battle in 378, near Adrianople, the Roman army 
was overrun by a sudden charge of Gothic horsemen. Valens, 
the emperor, perished. The new emperor, Theodosius, suc- 
ceeded in pacifying the Goths and in settling them again as 
foederati partly in Asia Minor and partly in Europe. When 
he died, in 395, his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, reigned, 
one at Constantinople, the other at Rome. After this date the 
Empire was never really united under a single emperor, so 
that it is often taken as the beginning of a new era or even of 
the Middle Ages. 

SUMMARY 

I. The Roman Empire. — 1. Size: (a) in relation to civilized world; 
(6) in relation to the modern states which its frontiers would 
enclose. 2. Hindrances and helps to union: (a) differences of 
race, of language, and of religion, partly overcome (7>) by grant of 
same rights, growth of a general system of law, increasing use 
of Latin as the language of literature and of education, as well as 
of administration and of the courts, by a similar manner of living, 
and by a good system of roads and waterways ; (c) Christianity 
and its triumph as a help or a hindrance. 
II. The Roman Government. — 1. Change in its character. 2. Its 
subdivisions. 3. Its officials. 4. New expenses and heavy taxes. 
5. The men who paid and the men who did not pay. 6. An offi- 
cial protector for the weak. 

III. The People. — 1. Artisans and tradesmen lose their liberties. 

2. Farmers : (a) disappearance of free farmers ; (b) the colonist 
farmers ; (c) the freedmen as farmers. 3. The nobles : (a) origin 
of their privileges ; (b) their manner of life ; (c) their dislike of 
military service. 

IV. The Army. — 1. Lack of free recruits. 2. German tribesmen as 

soldiers. 3. Size of army. 4. Military frontier settlements and 
town garrisons. 
V. The Outer Barbarians. — The German tribes: 1. Location. 
2. Immigration. 3. Their government, manner of life, and 
religion. 



18 ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 

Special Points of View : — 

1. Weakness of the Empire : (a) from its many frontiers ; (b) from 

the increasing difficulty of raising money ; (c) because of the 
decay of patriotism where the burdens of society were greater 
than its benefits ; (d) from the lack of freemen ready to enlist in 
the army ; (e) because the nobles had lost the fighting spirit ; 
(/) from the danger that German tribes in the service of the 
Empire should revolt. 

2. Beginnings of Mediaeval Society : (a) growth of a new nobility ; 

(b) loss of freedom by workmen in town and country ; (c) a land 
system in which vast estates were held by individual men, and 
were cultivated by men who had partly or wholly lost their free- 
dom ; (d) growing custom of great nobles to defy public officials 
and exempt their lands from taxation. 

FURTHER STUDY 

(See also Bibliography, pp. 477.) 

General Reading : Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages ; Bryce, 
Holy Roman Empire (ed. 1904 ) ; Munro and Sellery, Mediozval 
Civilization ; Be"mont and Monod, Mediceval Europe ; Emerton, 
Introduction to the Middle Ages ; Duruy, The Middle Ages ; Cun- 
ningham, Western Civilization, Vol. II. ; Lavisse, Political History 
of Europe ; histories of separate countries, — England, by Bright, 
5 vols., Gardiner, Green, Andrews, Cheyney, Terry; France, by 
Adams, Duruy, Kitchin, 3 vols. ; Germany, by Henderson, 2 vols. ; 
Spain, by Burke, 2 vols. ; manuals of Church history by Fisher, 
Newman, 2 vols., Alzog, 3 vols. ; selections from the sources, docu- 
ments, writings, letters, etc. : Henderson, Historical Documents 
of the Middle Ages; Robinson, Readings in European History; 
Jones, Civilization during the Middle Ages ; Pennsylvania Trans- 
lations and Reprints ; Thatcher-McNeal, Source Book for Me- 
diceval History ; source books of English history by Colby, Lee, 
Kendall, Adams-Stephens. 

Paragraphs : — 

1. The heritage of civilization left by the Greeks and Romans, 

Adams, Civilization^ Ch. 2. 

3. Language, Munro and Sellery, 3-17. 

4. Roman Law, see Morey. For later influence of this law, see para- 

graphs 32 (Justinian's code), 132 (revival at Bologna and else- 
where). 



ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 19 

Paragraphs : — 

5. Architecture, see Sturgis, Ch. 2, or Lanciani. 

6. Roman Policy toward Christianity : selections from imperial 

decrees, contemporary letters, and from Roman and Christian 
writers, in Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV., No. 1 ; Jones, 
No. 1 ; and Robinson, Nos. 6 and 7 ; see Adams, Ch. 3 ; Bury, 
Vol. I., 1-24 ; Newman, 147-172 ; or, at length, Ramsay. 

7-13. The Roman Government, the burdens it imposed, the con- 
sequences, Cunningham, 170-195 ; Hodgkin, Theodosius, 33-54 ; 
Munro and Sellery, 18-43 ; Bury, 25-49, particularly Dill, 189- 
234; list of officials, TV. and Rp., Vol. VI., No. 4; life among 
barbarians more tolerable, Robinson, Nos. 8, 9. 

15-18. The Germans : Adams, Civilization, Ch. 5 ; Henderson, Ch. 1 j 
see also Bury and Dill ; selection from the Germania of Tacitus, 
in Tr. and Rp., Vol. VI., No. 3 ; Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 1, 4 ; 
Jones, No. 2 ; Kendall, No. 2 ; Colby, 9-13. 

Additional Reading : Hodgkin, Dynasty of Theodosius and Italy and 

her Invaders, 8 vols. ; Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy, 
2 vols. ; Morey, Outlines of Roman Law ; Bury, Later Roman 
Empire, 2 vols. ; Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the 
Western Empire ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 
Bury ed., 7 vols. ; Gummere, Germanic Origins; Lanciani, Pagan 
and Christian Rome ; Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire ; 
Schaff, History of the Christian Church, G vols. ; Sturgis, Euro- 
pean Architecture. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

21. The Fall of Rome. — Within two centuries of the death 
of Theodosius the ruin of the Empire was almost complete. 
Instead of a single will controlling the peoples from the bor- 
ders of Scotland to the valley of the Euphrates, many king- 
doms had sprung into existence, mainly in the West — Saxon, 
Frankish, Burgundian, Gothic, and Vandal — and on the 
thrones were men with strange names — Ethelbert, Penda, 
Chlodwig, Euric, Goudebald, Genseric. The Middle Ages had 
begun. This seems clear to us, but the men of the fifth and 
sixth centuries did not look at things as we do. They Avere 
not accustomed to think chiefly of what was taking place in 
western Europe, and they saw that the Empire still existed 
with its capital at Constantinople, and with the ancient East 
as well as north Africa under its administration. It even re- 
covered some of its lost territories in Italy and in Spain. 
Moreover, several of the German kings accepted from the em- 
peror titles which meant that they were high officials of his 
government. A few of them actually so regarded themselves, 
and such the people thought them to be. Even men of intelli- 
gence continued to believe in the union of the world under a 
Roman emperor. These were not the first centuries that had 
seen invasions from which the Empire recovered. Rude sol- 
diers had many times led their troops — and among them 
German fcederati — into the heart of rich provinces in search 
of power, and had even mounted the imperial throne. The suc- 
cessive invasions which now ruined the Empire came either at 
such long intervals of time or troubled such widely separated 

20 



VISIGOTHIC RAIDS 21 

provinces that not until long afterward could men put them 
together as belonging to one great event — the fall of the 
Empire. 

22. Alaric's First Attacks — The Visigoths were fcederati 
in the service of Rome, but they had gained a taste for plun- 
der and had not forgotten their victory at Adrianople. Their 
chief, Alaric, soon after the death of Theodosius, possibly 
because the government refused him a high command in the 
army, led them on a plundering expedition through Macedonia 
into Greece. The imperial officers were too jealous of one 
another to unite against the common enemy. Stilicho at one 
time had Alaric in his power, but allowed him to escape. 
To free Greece from such a scourge Arcadius appointed Alaric 
general of the imperial forces in western Illyricum, whence he 
would be more likely to march into Italy than to threaten 
Constantinople. After the Gothic chieftain had armed his 
followers in the imperial arsenals he did attempt the invasion 
of Italy, only to be beaten back in 402 by Stilicho. A new 
danger now threatened Italy in the onset of a vast horde of 
Germans and slaves under Eadagaisus, a wave of invasion 
thrown forward by the movements of the Huns and the Ostro- 
goths beyond the northern frontier. Stilicho was equal to this 
new task, and the invaders were either slain or captured and 
sold as slaves. 

23. Provinces ravaged ; Rome sacked, 410. — Unfortunately 
Stilicho was suspected by the Roman party at court of con- 
spiring to create a throne for his son. Already he was the 
virtual ruler of the West. His wife was the adopted daughter 
of Theodosius, and his daughter was the wife of Honorius. 
Partly prompted by jealousy of this powerful German the 
legions of Britain proclaimed an emperor whose name, Con- 
stantine, reminded men of the good fortune of another soldier 
raised to the throne by these legions just a hundred years 
before. The usurper could not march into Italy, for he was 
kept busy in Gaul by a multitude of Germans, chiefly Vandals 
and Suevi, who crossed the Rhine at the end of 406. Another 



22 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

year passed and Stilicho's Roman enemies, working on the 
jealous fears of Honorius, persuaded him to slaughter Stilicho, 
his family, and many other influential Germans. The victory 
of the Roman party was brief. Alaric, who had been in the 
pay of Stilicho, saw that this was his opportunity. He 
marched at once upon Rome. As its walls were too strong 
to be taken by assault, he reduced it by famine and put it to 
ransom. He next demanded two Roman provinces as a per- 
manent home for his people. The emperor would not consent. 
He was himself secure behind the marshes of Ravenna, which 
he had made his capital since Alaric's first invasion of Italy. 
Alaric tried the expedient of setting up a rival emperor at 
Rome. After this scheme had failed, in 410, he forced an en- 
trance into the city and gave it over to his barbarous followers 
to pillage. Only the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul were 
respected, while hundreds of palaces offered rich spoil to the 
plunderers. Not since the year 390 before Christ had the 
city been in the hands of the barbarians. Men could not 
understand so portentous an event. Those who still wor- 
shipped the ancient gods declared that the disaster was due 
to the impiety which had permitted Christianity to displace 
the old religion. Augustine in reply wrote his famous City 
of God, describing a new and spiritual city, the Christian's 
true home, a city not to be overthrown like the earthly Rome 
by the weaknesses and the crimes of men. 

24. Germans in Gaul and Spain. — Meanwhile Gaul was a 
prey to bands of wandering Germans who plundered, burned, 
and ransomed through the length and breadth of the land. 
The evidences of their work have been discovered in the 
scanty ruins of Roman cities and country houses, their stones 
blackened by fire, or in some secret store of gold or silver that 
was hurriedly buried at the approach of the enemy. A new 
usurper invited the marauders across the Pyrenees into Spain 
After they had gone, the Visigoths marched up from Italy 
under Alaric's brother-in-law. He and the chiefs or kings who 
succeeded him concluded that it was best for their peoples to 



GERMANS IN GAUL AND SPAIN 



23 



enter the service of the Empire rather than to continue their 
career as plunderers. As the chief reason that led them 
within the Empire was the lack of land, the only way for the 
Empire to purchase their service was to grant them land. For 
this they agreed to drive the Vandals and the Suevi out of 
Spain. These peoples had not captured many Spanish cities, 




Carcassonne. 

City on the Aude in southern France. Fortified by the 
Visigoths, probably on foundations of Roman walls. Walls 
rebuilt and enlarged in the Middle Ages. See, also, page 121. 



but held the open country. All the Vandals except those 
north of the Douro were conquered, and the Visigoths received 
the provinces in the Garonne valley as their reward. Although 
they had originally come to this region as plunderers, they now 
began to respect what property was left the Roman inhabits 
ants. Since it was land that they must have, it was decided 
that when they could not be provided out of vacant or public 



24 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

lands the larger landowners should be required to give up two- 
thirds of their estates. In the case of other German tribes 
occasionally only one-third was demanded. This land settle- 
ment of itself would not have brought much distress had it 
not been preceded by wanton destruction of property, the 
burning of cities, and the massacre of the natives. A little 
later the Burgundians, who also were recognized as in the 
service of the Empire, settled in the Rhone valley on similar 
terms. While these events were taking place greater numbers 
of Germans had moved to the west bank of the Rhine into the 
region that was to become Alsace and Lorraine. Here they 
fixed themselves so firmly that their "western border became 
in time the line of separation between the two languages, 
French and German. The southward movement of the Franks 
along the lower Rhine, driving the ancient inhabitants of the 
Belgian provinces beyond the river Lys and the neighboring 
forests, marked the origin of the Flemings. Britain had been 
abandoned by the Roman legions and was left to defend it- 
self. After the first storm was over the Empire seemed still 
united, although German kingdoms had been established within 
its borders. 

25. Attila and Aetius. — Since the day when the Visigoths 
took refuge within the Empire the Huns had been extending 
their power westward to the great bend of the Danube. Their 
capital was somewhere on the Theiss. To guard the provinces 
from their raids the emperor at Constantinople was forced to 
pay a heavy tribute. Occasionally, also, Hunnic soldiers Avere 
hired to fight in the Roman armies. Aetius, the Stilicho of 
this period, had been a hostage with the Huns, and had once 
through their intercession been restored to favor at the court 
of Ravenna, and even advanced to the command of the troops. 
Although Aetius and Attila, the terrible king of the Huns, 
were on friendly terms, Attila was drawn into a war with the 
Empire in which Aetius became his antagonist. It happened 
in this way: the Vandals had again occupied the southern 
part of Spain and, taking advantage of quarrels in the African 



ATTILA AND THE HUNS 25 

Church, and between Roman officials in Africa, had crossed the 
straits of Gibraltar in 429 and seized the disturbed provinces. 
At first they entered into a bargain with the Roman government 
at Constantinople similar to that which bound the Visigoths 
and the Burgundians to the court of Ravenna. They even 
promised to pay a tribute of grain and oil. Afterward Africa 
became an independent Vandal kingdom. It was partly to 
please the Vandal king, who feared Aetius, partly to claim a 
share of the Empire as husband of a Roman princess, partly for 
plunder and conquest, that Attila marched into Gaul in 451 at 
the head of a host of Huns, Ostrogoths, and other tribesmen. 
Never before had Asiatics stretched their power so far into 
western Europe. In the presence of this danger Aetius per- 
suaded the Visigoths, the Burgundians, and even the Franks 
to make common cause with the Romans. Aetius and his 
followers, Roman and German, saved Orleans, which the Huns 
were besieging, and a little later fought a battle with them 
near Troyes, at Maurica. This is commonly called the battle 
of Chalons, where it was formerly believed to have taken 
place. The struggle was so fierce that the rivulet which flowed 
through the fields was swollen into a torrent of blood. In 
after days it was said that German and Hun were wont to 
rise from their graves and give ghostly battle in the air. 
Although neither party was really defeated, the fruits of 
victory belonged to Aetius, for Attila decided to retreat to his 
capital. The next year he invaded Italy and plundered the 
plains of the Po. Why he did not advance to Rome is not 
known. Probably his army was weakened by famine and 
disease and harassed by the troops of Aetius. At all events, 
after receiving an embassy led by the Roman bishop, Leo, he 
again retreated. A year later he died, and his kingdom soon 
fell to pieces. The same jealous folly which had destroyed 
Stilicho now caused the emperor to murder Aetius. As the 
first sack of Rome was the consequence of Stilicho's murder, 
so another and worse pillage of the city by the Vandals in 455 
was made possible by the death of Aetius. Leo again inter- 



26 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

vened, and, although, he could not save the riches of the city 
from plunder, he protected the people from massacre. 

26. The Last of the West Roman Emperors. — The murder 
of Aetius had also been avenged by the murder of the emperor 
Valentinian III. At this time, as at the death of Honorius, 
twenty years before, the whole Empire might again have been 
brought under a single ruler, and the separation which 
Theodosius had provided for in 395 might have been ended. 
Indeed, several times in the stormy days which followed there 
was no emperor save at Constantinople, but the phantom of a 
separate imperial government in Italy lingered for another 
twenty years. The real power belonged to the army and to 
its leaders, successors to Stilicho and Aetius. One of these 
generals, a German, made and unmade emperors during almost 
the whole period. After his death another general named his 
young son, Romulus, emperor, and to him was given the title 
Augustulus, the little Augustus. He did not reign long, for 
Odovacar, a foreign officer, deposed him in 476, and caused the 
senate to send an embassy to Constantinople asking for the 
reunion of the Empire, and that the title " patrician " be granted 
to Odovacar. Odovacar's followers, like the Visigoths and 
Burgundians, wanted a portion of the land upon which to 
settle. In one sense Italy now became a German kingdom, in 
another sense it was brought under the rule of the emperor at 
Constantinople. The Romans lived on under their old laws, 
while their German neighbors were ruled according to German 
customs. This event has often been called the " Eall of the 
Roman Empire," and it has been taken as the proper starting- 
point of the Middle Ages. Such a description of it was the 
invention of men who did not truly understand what had 
happened. The Roman Empire was falling, but the events 
which brought about its ruin were scattered over the fifth and 
sixth centuries. 

27. Fate of Gaul and Britain. — The death of Aetius and 
the confusion in Italy took away what little chance there was 
of restraining the Germans in Gaul and keeping up the ap- 



FATE OF GAUL AND BRITAIN 27 

pearance of real imperial government. The Burgnndians en- 
larged their territory in the Rhone valley, and the Visigoths 
ceased to consider themselves foederati. They even invaded 
Spain and conquered it for themselves, their kingdom for a 
time extending from the Loire to the straits of Gibraltar. 
Already Britain, which since the usurper Constantine left its 
shores had not been protected by a Roman army, was suffer- 
ing from incursions of Saxon and Anglian bands. Many of 
the Britons, in despair, crossed to Gaul, and in the peninsula 
of Armorica laid the foundations of modern Brittany. Others 
sullenly and slowly fell back toward the western shores of 
Britain itself. About their gallant resistance cluster the 
legends of King Arthur and his Knights. The struggle was 
so stubborn that nearly all traces of Roman and Christian civ- 
ilization were destroyed and the eastern part of the island be- 
came as barbarous and heathen as the lands beyond the Rhine. 
In the north of Gaul there were a few provinces under the 
rule of the Roman general, Syagrius. Even this remnant of 
empire was swept away in 486 when the Frankish king, Chlod- 
wig (Clovis), conquered Syagrius at Soissons. 

28. The Victorious Franks. — Soon afterward Chlodwig, 
by treacherous and brutal deeds, united all the Franks under 
his rule. He next conquered the Alamanni. It was during 
this struggle that, tradition says, he took a step which changed 
the relations of Roman and German. All the German tribes 
had hitherto held to the Arian views which they had at first 
received. With the growing influence of the Church, which 
regarded Arianism as a deadly heresy, it was difficult to com- 
pel Roman and German to live quietly side by side. Even the 
peaceful Burgundian kings could not overcome the suspicion 
with which they were looked upon. The wise Chlodwig saw 
the power which the bishops held and won them over to his 
support by accepting the Christian faith in the form they taught 
and by being baptized with three thousand of his followers by 
Saint Remi. Henceforward in any conflicts which the Franks 
were to have with either the Burgundians or the Visigoths 



28 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

the powerful churchmen would wish for a Frankish victory. 
It was not long before Chlodwig had driven the Visigoths 
south of the Garonne and his successors had made of the 
Burgundians a tributary people. Unlike the other Germans 
the Franks did not demand a part of the soil. They were 
conquerors, not emigrants, and after their victories many of 
them returned to their northern homes. Chlodwig, who died 
in 511, was the founder of the Merovingian line of kings, named 
from his legendary ancestor Meroveus. 

29. The Ostrogoths invade Italy. — The soldier Odovacar 
did not long rule undisturbed in Italy. A short time before 
he deposed the little Augustus one branch of the Ostrogothic 
people received a new king, Thiuda-reiks, called Theodoric 
by the Romans. Theodoric, during his youth, had lived as a 
hostage at Constantinople, a pledge of the peace between his 
tribe and the Empire. After he became king he alternately 
served the Empire as a commander of foederati and quarrelled 
with the emperors, harrying the country almost to the gates of 
Constantinople. In one of the intervals of peace he was raised 
to the consulate, still a high honor, although it gave no real 
power. Finally he proposed to the emperor to lead his Goths 
into Italy, overthrow Odovacar, and rule there until the em- 
peror could come to reestablish his own authority over these 
well-nigh lost provinces. The emperor was glad to have so 
troublesome an officer as far away as possible. Theodoric, in 
488, gathered his tribe together, probably about two hundred 
thousand in number, with forty thousand fighting'men. The 
journey from the banks of the Danube was long and dangerous, 
for it lay through the lands of hostile tribes. Odovacar was 
no match for his new rival and in 490 shut himself up in 
Ravenna. After a three years' siege he surrendered, but soon 
suffered the fate of Stilicho and of Aetius. The excuse was 
the same, and the murderer was Theodoric himself. 

30. Theodoric rules Italy, 493-526. —From the death of 
Odovacar until his own death, over thirty years later, Theod- 
oric ruled unopposed over Italy. His followers received a 



THEODORIC IN ITALY 



29 



third of the land, and settled quietly beside the conquered, liv- 
ing under the same officers, and probably the same laws. The 
organization of Italy was not changed ; even the taxes were 
collected in the old way, though the condition of the curials 
was made more endurable. Theodoric surrounded himself 
with advisers who sincerely tried to rule as the Empire had 




Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna. 

Constructed during his reign. Used during the Middle Ages as the 
choir of the church S. Maria della Rotonda. The roof is a single 
block of Tstrian marble, 33 feet in diameter, weighing 300 tons. 



been ruled in its happier days, and Italy began to recover its 
vanished prosperity. The distribution of land to the con- 
querors had been an advantage, partly because it brought 
many abandoned estates under cultivation, and partly because 
some of the greater estates were subdivided. Italy became 
more capable of furnishing its own food supply, although it 
was still necessary to fetch grain from other countries. The 
greatest obstacle in Theodoric's path grew out of the fact that 



30 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

his followers were Arians dwelling in the midst of a population 
which looked upon Arians as dangerous heretics. He naturally 
suspected that the Romans were plotting to drive away both 
him and his Goths, and to restore the authority of the em- 
peror. He had been careful to act as if Italy was a part of 
the Empire, and on his coins the image of the emperor was 
stamped, but he did not mean that the emperor should actually 
rule. Toward the end of his reign, mastered by his suspicions 
of treason, he struck as savagely as at Ravenna. Two dis- 
tinguished Romans were put to death, one of whom, Boethius, 
wrote during captivity a book on the Consolation of Philosophy, 
which has immortalized his name. About the same time the 
honors which the emperor showed the pope of Rome, who 
went on an embassy to Constantinople, further exasperated 
Theodoric. The pope, on his return, was arrested, and died 
in prison. In 526 Theodoric also died. One year more and 
the imperial throne was mounted by Justinian, whose gen- 
erals were to destroy the kingdom Theodoric had so wisely 
managed. 

31. The New East: Justinian, 527-565. — Ever since Alaric 
marched down into Italy the East had suffered almost as much 
as the West. To protect from raids their European provinces 
the emperors had been forced to pay tribute to one barbarian 
chieftain after another. Shortly before Justinian became em- 
peror the administration had been reformed, prosperity had 
returned to the provinces, and the revenues were increasing. 
During the first years of his reign it seemed as if the Empire 
was to recover its former territories in Africa and in the West, 
and to enter upon a new career of glory, but in fact it was ceas- 
ing to be imperial and was becoming more distinctly a Greek or 
Byzantine kingdom. Because of this change it lingered until 
the Middle Ages were passing into the full blaze of the Renais- 
sance. Though the people still called themselves Romaioi, they 
gained a spirit really Greek and national, which gave them more 
unity and greater power of resistance. Justinian tacitly recog- 
nized the change when he abolished the ancient consulate and 



JUSTINIAN 31 

when he permitted Greek to take the place of Latin in official 
documents. In strange contrast was his codification of the 
Roman law, the most important means by which Koine's legacy 
to the world was to be preserved. 

32. The Roman Law. — Justinian had not been on the throne 
six months before he appointed a commission to revise and 
bring into a consistent whole all the laws which previous em- 
perors had issued. The result was the Civil Code, completed 
in a little more than a year. Tribonian, the best-known mem- 
ber of this commission, was placed at the head of a second, 
which in three years condensed into five or six volumes more 
than a hundred volumes -of opinions of lawyers whose explana- 
tions of disputed questions had been accepted by the courts 
as decisive. This work was called the Digest or Pandects. 

33. Reconquest of Africa and Italy. — After Justinian's great 
work for Roman law was finished, his general, Belisarius, in 534, 
utterly destroyed the Vandal kingdom and recovered Africa as 
an imperial province. This was followed by the reconquest of 
Sicily and the overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. 
In both Africa and Italy the excuse for war was the dethrone- 
ment of princes favorable to Justinian. In Italy the prosperous 
days of Theodoric were regretfully remembered when the impe- 
rial tax-gatherers began to oppress the people. For a time there 
was a chance that a new Gothic hero, the chivalrous Totila, 
would restore the fortunes of his countrymen ; but he, too, per- 
ished, and Italy in 552 became a part of the Empire in fact, as 
it always had been in name. The cost of it all was terrible, 
for the land was covered with ruins. The population of Rome, 
which so late as the reign of Honorius had been a million, had 
sunk to fifty thousand. During the last sieges the aqueducts 
had been cut, so that the splendid baths became useless, and 
they, as well as the temples, began to crumble. 

34. The Lombards. — Justinian had not been dead three 
years before the Lombards, another German horde, appeared 
in Italy, and robbed the Empire of a large part of its con- 
quest. They seized the plains of the Po, and extended their 



32 



THE GERMAN INVASIONS 



rule far down the peninsula beyond Rome. There remained 
to the Greeks only Rome and the territory immediately de- 
pendent upon it, the lands about Ravenna, and the southern 
part of the peninsula. These were ruled by an officer called 
an exarch, who lived at Ravenna. 

35. Glories and Perils of Justinian. — Justinian is remem- 
bered not merely for his victories and his laws, but also for 




Saint Sophia. 

At Constantinople, erected by Justinian in 538 as a church, 
converted by the Turks into a mosque. Its dome is 107 feet 
in diameter, while the dome of the Pantheon is 142 feet. 



his great public buildings, and especially for the church of St. 
Sophia, which still stands, though transformed into a Turkish 
mosque. In the midst of his enterprises the whole eastern 
world was overwhelmed by a plague so frightful that it can be 
compared only with the plague at Athens in the Peloponne- 
sian War, and the Black Death which swept across Europe in 
1347-1348. A few years before his power had been shaken 
by an insurrection in Constantinople, called the Nika. While 



SAINT SOPHIA 



33 



the struggle was still undecided, he was encouraged by the bold 
words of the Empress Theodora, who assured him it was bettei 




Note.— The interior of the church of Saint Sophia was sheathed 
in heautiful marbles, and its columns were of porphyry. These 
are still unharmed, hut the mosaics representing saints and 
angels have been covered because the church is now a mosque. 



34 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

to die on the throne than to live in exile, and who reminded him 
of an old saying that "Empire is a fair winding sheet." 

36. The Doom of Ancient Civilization. — In the century 
and a half between the march of Alaric and the occupation of 
Italy by the Lombards, the appearance of western Europe had 
changed strangely. Whole districts had been depopulated and 
were now covered with forests infested by dangerous wild 
beasts. The great roads were no longer safe. Pirates terror- 
ized the seas. Commerce and trade languished. Artisans be- 
came scarce, and their work rude and inartistic. For this 
reason a horse cost less than his bridle. The king of Bur- 
gundy searched in vain through his dominions for a mechanic 
who could construct a water-clock. Industry in the towns 
languished because each great estate had among its slaves the 
artisans needed to do the work which was indispensable. The 
disorder and violence drove men to people the world with 
imaginary terrors, demons, goblins, and dragons, as if bar- 
barian chieftains and robber lords were not enough. Their 
notions of nature became as crude and childlike as those of 
the Greeks before the philosophers and mathematicians had 
painfully worked out a scientific notion of the world. The 
shadow of the Dark Ages already lay upon Europe. 



SUMMARY 

I. The Three Attacks. — 1. Visigothic federates and the Germans 
beyond the Rhine i («) Alaric' s march through Greece and his 
first repulse in Italy ; (6) raid of Radagaisus ; (c) Vandals and 
Suevi ravage Gaul and Spain ; (d) sack of Rome ; (e) Visigothic 
federates reconquer Spain from Vandals and settle in Garonne 
valley. 2. Attack of Huns and Vandals : (a) Vandals cross into 
Africa; (6) Attila invades Gaul, is repulsed; (c) invades Italy, 
retires ; (d) Vandals sack Rome ; (e) Visigothic kingdom in 
southern Gaul and Spain, Burgundian kingdom in Rhone valley ; 
(/) Angles and Saxons begin conquest of Britain. 3. Ostrogoths 
and Franks : (a) Odovacar in control of Italy ; (6) Theodoric 
in Italy ; (c) Chlodwig in northern Gaul. 



<&„ 20" 




EUROPE 

ABOUT 600 A.D. 
AFTER THE GERMANIC INVASIONS 

The Empire in red. Earlier frontier in the West indicated by broken 
red lines. Slight gains had been made on the eastern frontier. 

In the West the population of Italy, Spain and of Gaul, south of the 
broken line remained chiefly Gallo-Roman, the Germans forming a small 
percentage of it. German kingdoms which had disappeared are noted. 




Longitude East from Greenwich 



30" 40" 


*o° ao° ^ 1 


CT\ ^ 






\ 1 v 




46 


i x«\ ^X^cX^ 






" jTTc^erson 












^\ •^^ — ""^Nic* 6 * / 


S f \ ' *\^~^s \ 






S^ ^ jl v\ A « k \ ^ ^> 


:w 


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THE GERMAN INVASIONS 35 

II. German and Roman. — 1. German settlements : (a) Visigoths in 
southern Gaul and Spain ; (&) Burgundians in Rhone valley ; 
(c) Franks in northern Gaul ; (d) Ostrogoths in Italy ; (e) Van- 
dals in Africa ; (/) Angles, Saxons in Britain ; (g) Lombards in 
Italy. 2. Destroyers or neighbors : (a) compare case of Visigoths 
and Ostrogoths ; (b) compare these with case of Franks, or (c) of 
Angles and Saxons. 3. Land settlements : (a) Visigothic ; 
(6) Frankish ; (c) Ostrogothic. 4. Law (Theodoric). 

III. Partial Recovery of Empire. — 1. Justinian, his work and his 
conquests. 2. Lombard attack. 3. Portions of old Empire still 
under imperial control at end of Justinian's reign. 

Special Point of View : — 

With the aid of books referred to under "Further Study," consider the 
careers of the defenders and assailants of the Empire (Stilicho, 
Aetius, Syagrius, and the generals of Justinian ; Alaric, Attila, 
Chlodwig, Odovacar, and Theodoric), in order to discover addi- 
tional reasons why the Empire lost in the struggle. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

378. Battle of Adrianople. 

395. Death of Theodosius ; administrative division of the Empire. 

410. Sack of Rome by Alaric (group minor events in relation to this). 

f 449. Beginning of Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain. 

[ 451. Battle of Maurica (Chalons) ; associate Vandal sack of Rome, 455. 

j 476. Odovacar deposes Romulus Augustulus (" Fall of Rome "). 

j 486. Victory of Chlodwig over Syagrius. 

C 493. Theodoric becomes ruler of Italy. 

527-565. Reign of Justinian (reconquest of Italy and Africa). 

568. Lombard invasion. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading, see list for Chapter I. ; add Oman, Dark Ages. 

Paragraphs : — 

21. In studying the general character and consequences of the German 
invasions compare the accounts in Bright, Green, or Gardiner, 
for England ; in Henderson, for Germany ; Adams, Duruy, or 
Kitchin, Vol. I., for France; Burke, for Spain; Hodgkin, Dy- 
nasty of Theodosius and Theodoric for Italy. See also Dill, 
pp. 237-318. 



36 THE GERMAN INVASIONS 

Paragraphs : — 

22-23. Gothic Invasion, early accounts in Robinson, Nos. 11-13 j 

Thatcher-McNeal, No. 3. Sieges of Rome, Hodgkin, Theodosius, 

159-167 ; results of sack, Lanciani, Destruction of Home, Ch. 5. 

Stilicho, Bury, I., 74 ff. ; Hodgkin, Theodosius, Villari, Barbarian 

Invasions of Italy. 

24. The Goths and Burgundians in Southern Gaul : Kitchin, I., 60 ; 

Dill, 288 ff. 

25. Huns : description by Ammianus and by Priscus, Robinson, Nos. 10, 

14. Full narrative of Priscus, Bury, Vol. I., 213-223. Attila's 
career, Hodgkin, 169-203; Aetius, Bury, I., 167 ff. Relation of 
Attila's invasion to beginnings of Venice, Hodgkin, 199. 

26. Nature of "Fall of Rome, 1 ' see Bryce, Ch. 3. Thatcher-McNeal, 

No. 3. Odovacar, Bury, I., 276 ff. ; Hodgkin, Theodoric, Chs. 6, 
7 ; Oman, Dark Ages, Ch. 1. 

27. Coming of the English : Green, 5-14 ; Green, Making of England, 

Chs. 1-4 ; Ramsay, I., Ch. 9 ; Colby, No. 5 ; Kendall, No. 3. 

28. Chlodwig (Clovis): Robinson, No. 17 ; importance of his conversion, 

Lavisse, 18-21 ; Kitchin, I., 69-70 ; Alzog, II., 46-50. 
29-30. Ostrogoths in Italy : Hodgkin, Theodoric. Thatcher-McNeal, 
No. 3. For the owners of the great estates referred to here and in 
24, see 12 and 13. 

31. The New East, see especially Oman's Byzantine Empire, Ch. 11. 

32. The Roman Law : Morey, 158-163 ; Gibbon, Ch. 44 ; Bury, I., 365- 

371 ; Wilson, The State, 167-174. 

33. Victories of Justinian: Bury, I., 381-398; Oman, Dark Ages, 

Chs. 5, 6. 

34. Lombards: Bury, II., 145-158; Oman, Dark Ages, Ch. 11. 

35. The Nika : Gibbon, Ch. 40 ; Bury, I., 337-345 ; Munro and Sellery, 

87-113. 

36. Results of Invasions : Robinson, No. 12 ; Munro and Sellery, 

44-49, 50-59. 

Additional Reading : Green, The Making of England ; Ramsay, 
Foundations of England, 2 vols. ; Church, Early Britain ; Blok, 
History of the Netherlands, 3 vols.; Oman, Byzantine Empire; 
Oman, Dark Ages (476-918). 



CHAPTER HI. 

THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 

37. Work of the Church : Borders of Christendom. — At a 

time when the remnant of the Empire was becoming Greek 
and when the western provinces were ingulfed in the rising 
flood of barbarism, the task of guarding the Roman name 
and something of Roman ideas and institutions passed to the 
Church. Even Rome itself was to regain through the Church 
its position of capital as well as a new title to the name 
"Eternal City." The subdivisions of the Empire were per- 
petuated in ecclesiastical dioceses and provinces. The Roman 
law was preserved not merely in its influence upon the laws 
of the German kingdoms, but also in the laws of the Church, 
commonly called the canon law. Priests and monks were the 
teachers and writers, and saved the books of the Romans from 
utter destruction. Almost all that we mean by civilization 
took refuge within the protecting enclosure of church or mon- 
astery walls. In this way the Church rendered less disastrous 
the wreck of the Empire and maintained a bond of union 
between peoples otherwise enemies. Furthermore, it took up 
a work which the Empire had long abandoned, and pushed the 
frontiers of civilization northward into Germany, the Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula, and Russia. Meanwhile a power arose 
in the East which robbed the Empire of more than half the 
territory it still controlled, and which menaced even the 
Christian peoples of the West. This was Islam or Moham- 
medanism. The two centuries which followed the death of 
Justinian saw this new invasion roll over Syria and Africa, 
and penetrate into Europe as far as the valley of the Loire. 

37 



38 THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 

38. Growth of the Bishop's Power. — Wherever the German 
invaders put an end to the imperial rule or undertook to direct 
it themselves, the conquered Eomans naturally turned to their 
bishops for protection. Even before the invasions the bishops 
had been something more than rulers of the Church. They 
managed the property given or bequeathed to it, especially 
after the reign of Constantine. From the early days of 
Christianity the brethren had been taught to bring their dis- 
putes before them for settlement. Constantine ordered that at 
the request of one of the parties to a civil case it be transferred 
to the bishop's court. Although this privilege disappeared 
later, the bishops retained control of civil cases in which 
priests were involved. When the invasions had interrupted 
trade and commerce, and had destroyed much of the wealth 
that could be seized and carried away, the only form of wealth 
that remained fairly secure was land. Whoever could keep 
large estates was a great man because he could care for many 
dependents, and these dependents could work and, if need be, 
fight for him. Such a powerful landlord the Church was 
speedily coming to be, and it took advantage, as did all other 
great landlords, of the fact that property and power went to- 
gether. Consequently the collapse of the imperial administra- 
tion, instead of seriously crippling the Church, was one of the 
causes of increasing its influence. If the bishop was to be 
looked to for protection, it was also natural that he should be 
chosen from among those who were already rich and influ- 
ential, especially if they were men who had had experience in 
managing affairs. Many of the prominent bishops of the fifth 
century in Italy and Gaul were chosen from the senatorial 
class, that is, from among the wealthiest nobles. Gradually 
they took into their hands matters which had once belonged 
to the imperial officers. In Italy, after Justinian had restored 
the authority of the Empire, each city had its count or tribune 
as well as its bishop, but often it was the bishop rather than 
the tribune who was the real ruler. Into his hands passed at 
least the duties of the " defender," the care of the poor, and 



THE PAPACY 39 

the maintenance of public works. As soon as the Germans 
abandoned their Arianism, the bishop could be looked upon 
no longer as an enemy by any of the contending peoples, — 
Goth, Burgundian, Lombard, or Greek, — because all professed 
the same faith. This freed his position from the ordinary 
dangers of rule in such times. Although there were bad as well 
as good bishops, the increase in their power was on the whole 
a great advantage. They understood better than any one out- 
side of Constantinople the way the old government had been 
carried on. 

39. The Papacy. — If the ordinary bishop gained in influ- 
ence during these centuries of strife, the greatest gainer was the 
bishop of Rome, who in Italy by the fifth century was coming 
to be called "pope" to distinguish him from other bishops. The 
Roman Church was the richest of all, possessing estates in Italy, 
Africa, and other parts of the West. Not only was the pope, 
by the end of the sixth Century, superior to the representative 
of the emperor in Rome, but the city itself was organized like 
a big parish. It was divided into quarters, at the head of 
each of which was placed a deacon. The life of the whole 
community centred in the churches or basilicas. Outside of 
Rome the magic of the Roman name was enough to give the 
pope his unique position among the bishops of the world. 
This was strengthened by the belief that the church at Rome 
had been founded by Peter, the " Prince of the Apostles," to 
whom Christ had said, " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I 
will build my Church : and the gates of hell shall not prevail 
against it." The popes urged that to Peter, and to them as 
his successors, the care of guarding the doctrines of the Church 
had been intrusted. They were practical minds, not inclined, 
as were their brethren in Constantinople and the East, to stray 
away into curious investigations upon the mystery of God's 
nature and of the union of the human and the divine in 
Christ's personality. Very few western bishops attended the 
Church councils where these questions were debated. When 
the pope did interfere, it was rather as an arbiter or judge who 



40 THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 

came to settle the controversy. His representative presided 
over the council of Chalcedon, which met in 451, the year 
Attila was ravaging Gaul, and his letter to the council con- 
tained the words which were embodied in the ISTicene creed 
about the two natures of Christ. To this reputation for right 
teaching or orthodoxy, in which they had no rivals, the popes 
added much actual power. By the council of ISTicsea (325) 
they had been given jurisdiction over Italy. In the West there 
was no church which could equal theirs in antiquity or in 
prominence, so that while the bishops of Constantinople, 
Antioch, and Alexandria claimed an equality with the bishop 
of Rome, no western bishops in later days put forward such a 
claim. To the papal claim of control beyond the confines of 
Italy over the whole West Valentinian III. gave the support 
of an imperial decree. The belief gained ground that the 
Church was one, and that its head was the successor of Peter, 
the Vicar of Christ, who presided at Rome. Just how far the 
idea would be carried out and in what ways it would affect 
the actual administration of the Church depended upon circum- 
stances, and chiefly upon the patient persistence and skill with 
which, decade after decade, the popes urged their claims and 
managed the affairs which came into their hands. 

40. Origin of Monasticism. — The work of the Church in stay- 
ing the ruin of ancient civilization was aided by companies of 
men whose aim might, at first glance, seem inconsistent with 
the existence of society itself. These men were monks, grouped 
under the direction of abbots in monasteries scattered all over 
the West. Those who first led the way in this manner of living 
were moved by a sense of the seriousness of the conflict within 
them between the desire to do right and to be pure and the 
temptation to seek their own pleasures, even if these were 
ignoble and vicious. Their decision to turn away from the 
world was increased by the violence which swept like an 
epidemic through the Empire as the authority of the law 
was less respected and as bands of marauding Romans or 
barbarians went about attacking towns and maltreating the 



BENEDICTINE RULE 41 

inhabitants. They became convinced that in his Gospel Jesus 
called some to a higher life, one which should be a closer imita- 
tion of the life of him who had no place where to lay his head, 
and no mother nor any brethren save those who did the will of 
God. They longed to yield to him a completer obedience than 
was possible to those who remained in the world and continued 
to own lands and to have wives and children. Obscurely com- 
bined with these feelings was the belief that about earthly rela- 
tionships there was a taint which they must seek to escape. 
Some of the early Christians of the East who looked at the 
world in this way sold their property, separated themselves 
from their families, and retired into the deserts to mortify the 
flesh and to live wholly in thoughts of God. Even here evil 
beset them, for the body, tortured by hunger, thirst, the heats 
of the desert, and utter loneliness, retaliated, vexing the mind 
with dreams of dreadful monsters or visions of the earthly 
temptations embodied in shapes irresistibly alluring. Bitter 
experience taught some of the hermits a wiser plan. They 
withdrew from the desert and gathered other like-minded men 
into houses or monasteries, where they lived under the direction 
of a leader and according to a rule. Similar houses were also 
founded for women. The great lawgiver of the monasteries of 
the West was Benedict, who, in 528, while Justinian was begin- 
ning his work at Constantinople, built on the ruins of a pagan 
temple in southern Italy the famous monastery of Monte Casino. 
41. Benedictine Rule. — The Rule which Benedict drew up 
for his monks was adopted or imitated everywhere, and the 
order named Benedictine became the most influential of those 
of its type. Although Benedict had been a hermit, he marked 
out in his Rule a way of living in strong contrast to the hermit 
life, which caused the monks to become useful path breakers for 
the new civilization. " Idleness," he declared, " is the enemy 
of the soul." 'In consequence, the monks were to occupy them- 
selves either with manual labor or in reading. Wherever a 
Benedictine monastery was placed, the forests were cleared 
and the fields were cultivated. Much land, which on account 



42 



THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 



of the disorder of the times had become wild, was reclaimed. 
The monks spread the tradition of good farming. In order 
that all the brethren might have books to read, some of them 
were kept at work copying sacred writings, and even the Eoman 
writers, whose Latin was still admired and imitated. It was in 
this way that many Eoman books were preserved. The system 
not only dignified labor, which had to so great an extent in 



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Abbey of Montmajour. 

In southeastern France. Part of the ruins date from 
the sixth century. Its position as well as its walls and 
great tower made it virtually into a strong fortress. 

ancient society been left to slaves, it also refused to distinguish 
between the slave and the freeman. Although the monk was 
vowed to poverty, the monastery in which he lived might be- 
come rich and he might enjoy some of the benefits of wealth. 
As generous persons began to leave lands or money to these 
establishments, they became landowners, managing their estates 
through stewards. The estates of the Abbey of St. Germain- 



POPE GREGORY, AND THE MISSION TO ENGLAND 43 

des-Pres, a monastery which stood just outside mediaeval Paris, 
eventually covered nearly 800 square miles. 

42. Monks as Missionaries. — The monasteries not merely 
helped to redeem the country from desolation and preserved 
literature, they were the centres from which missionaries were 
sent to extend the Christian faith among tribes which had 
never been reached. During the fifth and sixth centuries, 
when the Saxons and Angles were driving the Britons west- 
ward, British Christianity took refuge in Ireland. Monasteries 
and churches were built everywhere. The monks industriously 
copied ancient books. So full of zeal and so learned were 
these monks that Ireland won the name of the Isle of the 
Saints. From Ireland Saint Columba crossed to Scotland 
about 563, and at Iona, an island not far from Fingal's cave, 
founded a monastery which became a centre for the spread of 
Christianity through Scotland and the northern part of the 
England of the Angles and the Saxons. 

43. Pope Gregory (590-604), and the Mission to England. — 
The first pope to make use of the monks as missionaries was 
Gregory the Great. He was of noble birth and had risen to be 
prefect of Rome. Afterward he suddenly broke off his public 
career, turned his palace into a monastery, and became its abbot. 
When in 590, notwithstanding his protests, he was chosen pope, 
Italy was in a desperate condition. As he wrote in one of his 
letters : " The cities are destroyed, the castles torn down, the 
fields laid waste, . . . villages are empty. . . . We see how 
some are carried into captivity, others mutilated, others slain. 
... If we love such a world, we love not our joys, but our 
wounds." He deserved the name " Great " because he did 
much to lessen these miseries by holding the ruthless Lombards 
in check, by redeeming captives, and by using the income of 
Church estates to relieve the poor and the suffering. His care 
was also extended over the churches of the West, where, with- 
out constantly asserting his supremacy as bishop of Rome, he 
sought to introduce more order and justice. While he took 
for the bishop of Rome the humble title servus servorum dei 



44 THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 

(servant of God's servants), he rebuked the pretensions of the 
bishop of Constantinople that the See of New Rome was equal 
in dignity to the church founded by Peter. With all these 
labors he had time to improve the ritual of the Church and its 
music. He did not forget the ideals of his monastic life. 
As pope he was surrounded by monks. The Rule of Benedict 
was confirmed through his influence by a Church council. He 
also determined to use the monks as missionaries. This was 
partly because he had himself wanted to become a missionary. 
One day while he was an abbot he saw in the Roman slave 
market three fair-haired boys for sale. He inquired who they 
were and the reply was Angles. "Angels," he exclaimed, 
"yes, they have faces like angels, and they should become 
companions of the angels in heaven." Since he could not go 
to England when he became pope, he sent the prior of his 
monastery, Augustine, and forty monks, who in 597 established 
themselves at Canterbury in the kingdom of Kent. 

44. British and Roman Missionaries. — Canterbury was the 
southern centre from which the work of converting the heathen 
Anglo-Saxons was pushed steadily on. There was great 
jealousy between the Scottish and Irish missionaries and these 
newcomers from Rome, for Ireland and Scotland had so long 
been cut off from Europe that their religious customs were 
different from the customs which the influence of Rome was 
spreading everywhere. The quarrel threatened to be long and 
bitter, but it was ended by King Oswiu of Northumberland, 
who, at the conference of Whitby, in 664, decided for the 
Roman party because he feared lest Peter, the bearer of the 
keys of heaven, might some day refuse him entrance were he 
disobedient to the commands of the Romans. It was fortunate 
that the affair was so decided, for otherwise England might 
have remained less open to influences from the Continent and 
to the new civilization which was to grow up there. 

45. Boniface, Apostle to the Germans. — A little over a cen- 
tury after Gregory had sent Augustine to convert the Anglo- 
Saxons, another Pope Gregory found in one of these converted 



GAINS AND LOSSES OF CHRISTENDOM 45 

Anglo-Saxons a missionary to the Germans beyond the Rhine. 
His name was Boniface. He was not the first to work among 
the Germans, for monks had come over from Ireland and Scot- 
land and had prepared the way. Unlike them Boniface was 
anxious in all things to follow the leadership of the pope. He 
took an oath of obedience in 722, promising to have no com- 
munion with those who did not do as the successors of Peter 
taught or who should resist their authority. The work of 
Boniface lay in what is now southern and western German}'. 
Everywhere he sought to root out pagan superstitions and sub- 
stitute Christian ceremonies for the rites venerated by the peo- 
ple. Before an awe-stricken multitude he cut clown the sacred 
oak of Geismar and constructed a Christian chapel out of the 
wood. He was so successful that the pope made him arch- 
bishop and gave him power to establish bishoprics. Among 
those which afterward became centres of a better civilization 
were Regensburg, Salzburg, and Wurzburg, and also the monas- 
tery of Fulcla. Supported by the Frankish rulers, Charles Mar- 
tel and Pepin, he reformed the Frankish Church, which was 
sorely troubled by bishops and abbots who were often either 
passionate huntsmen or plunderers rather than shepherds of the 
people. Several bishoprics and abbeys had been seized by lay- 
men. Toward the end of his life the archbishopric of Mainz 
was created for him and became the Church capital of Ger- 
many. Notwithstanding these successes Boniface longed to 
return to his missionary work. He went to Frisia, where the 
pagan party was still strong, and there in 755 he was murdered. 
46. Gains and Losses of Christendom. — Through the work of 
men like Augustine and Boniface Britain, now becoming Eng- 
land, was won again to Christianity, and the frontier of the 
rude Christian civilization of the day was pushed beyond the 
Rhine. Scotland and Ireland had also been territorial gains to 
Christendom made since the collapse of the Empire. These 
were some compensation for the losses in the east and south, 
where whole regions were torn away by the victorious Mos- 
lems, and where for centuries Christianity had to defend itself. 



46 



THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 



47. Religion in Arabia : Mohammed (571-632). — Somewhat 
inland from the eastern shore of the Red Sea lies the city of 
Mecca. Here Mohammed was born six years after the death 
of Justinian. At this time the Arab tribes were not united 




The Kaaba 

At Mecca. The chief sanctuary of Islam. First erected, according to the 
legend, by Abraham and Ishmael. Form : a cube, 40 feet long, 33 feet 
wide, 50 feet high. In its walls is set the sacred black stone. This was 
broken by fire in 683, but its parts were held together in a setting of 
silver. The Kaaba has been reconstructed several times since Moham- 
med's day. The building is covered with a heavy black silk damask 
— the sacred carpet — which is replaced by a new one each year. 



under a single rule, nor did they all have the same religious 
customs, although there were signs of a change which would 
bring them together. The principal shrine, the Kaaba at Mecca, 
was becoming the centre of the religious life of the whole race. 
Within its walls were gathered more than three hundred of the 
local gods and here was the stone which the Angel Gabriel had 



TEACHINGS AND TRIUMPHS OF MOHAMMED 47 

brought, and which had lost its dazzling whiteness, blackened 
by the sins of those who touched it. Although the people were 
idolaters, there were teachers who declared that earlier there 
had been a purer religion, in which Allah, or God, alone was 
worshipped. Such men were especially open to the influence 
of Jewish and Christian ideas which came in from the neighbor- 
ing Palestine. Before Mohammed became a religious teacher 
he was regarded as a just man, who could be trusted to settle 
fairly the disputes which were brought to him. There was 
something also that marked him as of a nature different and 
greater than his fellows. He was fortunate in winning the love 
of a distant relative, the rich widow Kadi j ah, into whose service 
he had entered as a commercial agent. After his marriage with 
her, freed from the need of earning a livelihood, his thoughts 
turned more and more to the religious questions which were 
troubling the minds of other Arabs. He often wandered upon 
the mountains fasting. Soon he had visions and heard voices, 
as it were the voices of angels. At first he was afraid that 
demons were vexing him or that he was going mad, but Kadi- 
jah reassured him, believing it was truly the Angel Gabriel 
who had spoken. He gave himself up to this strange experi- 
ence. It was long before even his own family was convinced 
that he was a prophet. When first he declared himself, they 
laughed him to scorn. As gradually the little band of disciples 
increased, the guardians of the Kaaba began to look upon him 
as a dangerous man and finally resolved to kill him. He knew 
of their design and fled, September 24, 622, to a town where 
he already had adherents and which took the name Medina. 
This flight, or Hegira, was regarded by his followers as the 
beginning of a new era. 

48. Teachings and Triumphs of Mohammed. — What Mo- 
hammed heard in his visions he recited to his disciples, who 
afterward gathered these sayings into a book called the Koran, 
which means recitation. The deep-seated conviction which 
underlay all his thought was submission to the will of God, 
and from this came the name Islam, which describes his reli- 



48 THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 

gious system. Entire submission implied that God was all- 
powerful, and Mohammed also taught that there is but one 
God and taught this so zealously that idolaters became the 
special enemies of his followers. He regarded himself as the 
last and greatest of the prophets. Believers must not only 
accept his message, they must also pray, fast, give alms, and 
go on pilgrimages. Since he recognized the Old Testament 
worthies and Jesus also as prophets, it was hard for the ignorant 
Christian peoples who first came in contact with his doctrines 
to regard them otherwise than as some new heresy not very 
different from a vigorous kind of Arianism. A change had 
come over Mohammed's mild and dreamy temperament since 
he had been bitterly ridiculed and persecuted. He came to 
regard his enemies as the enemies of Allah, and their property 
as the spoil of true believers. Not long after he fled to Medina 
he began to offer them the plunder of the caravans of Mecca. 
In the hard fighting which ensued the military ardor of his 
followers, their love of plunder, and their burning faith were 
all welded into one confused mass of feeling, which later was to 
send them to the conquest of many Roman provinces. Mecca 
itself yielded eight years after the Hegira, and soon all Arabia 
submitted. Mohammed was preparing an expedition against 
Syria when he died. 

49. Conquests of the Mohammedans. — The followers of 
Mohammed immediately began to quarrel over the question 
who should take his place as religious and national leader. 
This quarrel led to murders, and was eventually to divide the 
Mohammedans into two hostile sects, but it did not keep them 
from hastening to the spoil of the Empire and of its antagonist, 
the Persian kingdom. Their march of conquest led in two 
directions, to the east beyond the Caspian and even to the Indus, 
and along the northern coast of Africa into Spain and southern 
Gaul. Their eastern victories account for the fact that there 
are now in India fifty million Mohammedans. Of the Empire, 
Syria was the first to suffer. In 634, within two years of 
Mohammed's death, Jerusalem was captured. In Egypt it 



SARACEN CIVILIZATION 49 

happened that the native population was looked upon by the 
Greek bishops as heretics on the question of Christ's humanity. 
The natives had suffered so much from persecution, as well as 
from the imperial tax-gatherers, that they opened their cities to 
the Arabian armies. Alexandria was taken by assault in 641. 
Farther west, in north Africa, the Berbers had always been rest- 
less under Roman rule and readily joined the Mohammedans 
in the attacks upon the strongholds of the Empire. The 
Berbers made up the bulk of the Moslem army that early 
in the eighth century crossed into Spain. The Visigothic 
monarchy had long been weak. The poorer people were 
crushed under the tyranny of the great, whether these were 
Visigoths or descendants of the ancient Roman provincials, 
so that there was no national resistance, and the whole peninsula 
except the northwest was soon overrun. The tide of conquest 
was not checked until it reached the plains of Tours. Here, 
near Poitiers, the Franks under Charles Martel gathered, in 
732, to withstand the invader. The fierce charges of the 
Moslem cavalry could not break the ranks of the Frankish 
spearmen. The Moslem leader, Abd-er-Rahman, was killed in 
the fray. When the next morning the Franks advanced to 
battle, they found nothing but the deserted camp of the enemy. 
This did not end the struggle. For years the south was deso- 
lated by Moslem expeditions. Gradually strife broke out in 
north Africa, and the stream of plunderers was dried at its 
source. 

50. Saracen Civilization. — This victory of the Franks, 
generally called the battle of Tours, was as important to west- 
ern civilization as the triumph of Aetius at Maurica three hun- 
dred years before. The Moslems, it is true, after their conquest 
of the ancient seats of knowledge in Egypt and Syria, learned 
much, from their Greek subjects. Their scholars sought to 
carry the sciences of geography, astronomy, and mathematics 
still farther than the Greeks had brought them. They gave 
the race name to the " Arabic " numerals, which greatly sim- 
plified arithmetical calculation. They perfected algebra and 



50 



THE CHURCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 



introduced it in Europe. They also studied enthusiastically the 
Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle. It was through a 
translation from an Arabic version that western scholars first 
studied Aristotle. The Saracens, as the eastern Moslems came 
to be called, had been deeply influenced by the Persians, a 




Mosque of Cordova. 

Begun by Abd-er-Rahman I., founder in 755 of the emirate of Cordova. 
Some of its twelve hundred columns, of porphyry, jasper, and rare mar- 
bles, were taken from Nimes and Narbonne; others were given by the 
emperor at Constantinople. After Cordova was captured by Ferdinand 
III. of Castile in 1236 the mosque was transformed into a Christian church. 

people which had rivalled the Greeks not only in war but also 
in the 'arts of peace. Arab merchants traded with China, with 
India, and the Spice Islands. Like the ancient Phoenicians, 
they quickly acquired what was known by each people and 
were often able to surpass their teachers, so that later they 
taught much to western peoples. In the days of Harun-al- 



SUMMARY 51 

Kashicl, who reigned from 786 to 809, famous through the 
stories of the Arabian Nights, Bagdad was the capital of a 
world superior in civilization to western Europe and rivalled 
only by Constantinople. Nevertheless, it was better for the 
new peoples of the West to control their own future and to 
build slowly and painfully a civilization sounder than that of 
the Saracens. 

SUMMARY 

I. The Church. — 1. Service to civilization: (a) perpetuates Roman 
methods and culture ; (b) extends the borders of civilization. 

2. Organization : (a) power of bishops ; (6) the pope as a ruler 
and as head of the western Church. 3. Monasticism : (a) motive ; 
(&) the hermits ; (c) the monastic life ; (d) Rule of Benedict. 
4. Missionary enterprises : (a) in north Britain ; (&) among the 
Angles and Saxons ; (c) among the Germans. 

II. Islam. — 1. Origin : («) condition of Arabia ; (&) career of Mo- 
hammed ; (c) Koran. 2. Mohammedan conquests, east and west. 

3. Saracen civilization. 

Special Points of View : — 

1. Compare the frontiers of the Christendom of the undivided Roman 
Empire under Theodosius with the boundaries of Christendom 
after they had been extended by the missionaries but had been 
narrowed on the east and south by Moslem victories. 2. The 
great men of the period, — Benedict of Nursia, Gregory the Great, 
Boniface, Mohammed. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

528. Benedict founds monastery of Monte Casino. 

590. Gregory I. becomes pope ; (597, Augustine lands in Britain). 

622. September 24, — the Hegira. 

732. Battle of Tours. 

755. Death of Boniface. 

FURTHER STUDY 
General Reading : see Ch. I. 
Paragraphs : — 

38. The Bishops, their influence, see Dill, 179-186 ; Alzog, I., 659-663, 
II., 125-137; Cunningham, 20-23. On "Defender," see 10. 



52 THE CHUliCH AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 

Paragraphs : — 

39. The Papacy: Adams, Cli. 6 ; Alzog, I., 6(3^-677, II., 138-141; for 
contemporary views of the origin of papal power, see Robinson, 
Ch. 4. 

40-41. Monasticism : the Rule of Benedict, in Henderson, 274-314, sig- 
nificant paragraphs, 23, 27, 33, 39, 48, 55, 58 ; Thatcher-McNeal, 
Nos. 251-264 ; a briefer selection in Jones, No. 6 ; selections from 
monastic writings, Kobinson, Nos. 32-34 ; see also Jessopp, Ch. 3 ; 
Alzog, I., 714-755 ; Munro and Sellery, 129-158 ; Emerton, Ch. 11. 

42. Missionaries: Munro and Sellery, 114-128 ; Milinan, II., 236-259 ; 
Alzog, II., 96-120. 

43-44. Conversion of the English, from Bede, in Robinson, Nos. 39- 
42 ; briefer selections in Colby, No. 6 ; Kendall, No. 4. 

45. Letters of the Pope, Boniface's oath, accounts from contemporary 
lives of Boniface, in Robinson, Nos. 43-47. To understand one 
of the results of such labors, see a map of Germany in the Middle 
Ages showing the amount of territory ruled by bishops or abbots, 
especially Droysen's Handatlas, pp. 30-31. 

47-50. Selections from Koran, in Jones, No. 3 ; briefer in Robinson, 
No. 48. See, further, Muir, Bury, Vol. 2, 258-273 ; Gilman, Burke, 
I., 121-132; Lane-Poole; Oman's Byzantine Empire, Ch. 12. 
The triumph of the Moslems wrested from European civilization 
those parts of the Mediterranean basin which the Greeks and the 
Romans had won, chiefly from the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 
See map 4. 

Additional Reading : Hatch, Growth of Church Institutions ; Jessopp, 
The Coming of the Friars ; Montalembert, Monks of the West, 
7 vols. ; Muir, Mahomet, also The Coran, its Composition and 
Teaching; Lane, Selections from the Ku-an; Lane-Poole, The 
Speeches and Table-Talk of the Prophet Mohammed; The Ara- 
bian Nights' 1 Entertainment; Gilman, Saracens; Lane- Poole, 
Moors in Spain ; Milman, History of Latin Christianity, 8 vol? 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 

51. The New Home of Civilization. — Nearly two centuries 
lay between the later German invasions and the Moslem defeat 
on the plains of Tours. During this period the distinction 
between German conqueror and conquered Roman was slowly 
disappearing, and in its place came those differences of locality, 
dialect, customs, and feelings which marked the beginnings of 
new nations. The rights which the strong had exercised over 
the weak in spite of the Roman laws became characteristic and 
pointed to a new organization of society called feudalism, which, 
after a century, was to supersede Roman society in the West. 
In the East the Empire had become more Greek. Many of its 
provinces had been conquered by the Moslems. The Danube 
frontier had also been overpassed by Slavic and Bulgarian 
invaders. The increasing weakness of the Empire and the loss 
to Christendom of the southern shore of the Mediterranean 
showed that the new civilization, unlike the ancient, was not 
to be centred about the Mediterranean, but was to lie farther 
north and west. 

52. Quarrels over the Frankish Heritage. — The growth of 
a single nation composed of Franks and Gallo-Romans was 
hindered by the custom of dividing territory, like ordinary 
property, among the heirs of the royal house. After the death 
of Chlodwig, in 511, there was a long and bloody series of wars. 
Each son or grandson or great-grandson wished a share of the 
heritage larger than those of his brothers or of his cousins. 
When they were not fighting for territory, they were trying to 
capture one another's treasures, their hoarded gold, or their 

53 



54 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 

jewels. It is true they retained a notion that their power was 
really one, and often their capitals lay near together. When 
the kingdom was divided between the four sons of Chlodwig, the 
royal cities were Rheims, Soissons, Paris, and Orleans. Occasion- 
ally one would arise who better understood the need of substitut- 
ing for equal rights of inheritance the right of the eldest to the 
whole patrimony, and who desired to revive the Roman ideas of 
authority and to restore the Roman system of taxation. Such a 
one was Brunehaut, a Visigothic princess, who, in 567, brought 
to her Frankish husband, King Sigebert, the traditions of Roman 
civilization which still lingered in Spain. Her long life was 
filled by terrible feuds either with her rival Fredegond, the 
low-born wife of Sigebert's brother Chilperic, or with her 
nobles. In her old age the nobles triumphed and wreaked 
upon her a frightful vengeance. They tied her to the tails of 
wild horses, lashed these to fury, and so tore her limb from 
limb. Such horrible crimes were sometimes followed by 
equally terrifying remorse. The story is told of a Burgundian 
king, who, maddened by the suspicions with which his second 
wife filled his mind against his first wife's son, caused the young 
man to be strangled. Overcome by remorse he hastened to a 
monastery, drove from the neighborhood all the inhabitants so 
that its devotions might not be disturbed by worldly sounds 
or temptations, and ordered the monks to plead night and day 
for his pardon. Such races of kings were at length worn out 
by passion and violence. They were incapable of uniting 
Franks and Gallo-Romans for a great career. 

53. The Mayors of the Palace. — Among the royal officers 
there was a steward or overseer called the major domus, or 
mayor of the palace. At first his duties were scarcely more 
important than those performed by any nobleman's steward, 
but eventually, because he stood so near the king's person and 
managed his estates, he succeeded in gathering into his own 
hands the reins of power, even the command of the army. 
After a time the king lost the right of selecting his mayor of 
the palace and the position was taken by the man who was 



THE FOUNDATIONS OF ENGLAND 55 

leader of the nobles. Each of the Frankish kingdoms had an 
official of this sort. Pepin, one of those who overthrew Brune- 
haut, became mayor of the palace in Austrasia, or eastern 
Frankland. The long civil wars resulted in sowing permanent 
enmity between Austrasia and the western country or Neustria. 
This has given rise to the tradition that there was some real 
difference between the peoples of the two regions. In their 
rivalry Austrasia was to triumph through the energy of Pepin's 
grandson, a second Pepin, who, with the aid of discontented 
Neustrian nobles, conquered the Neustrian mayor of the palace 
at Testry, in 687, and gained firm control over both kingdoms. 
From this time on the Merovingian house, as the descendants 
of Chlodwig were called, ceased to rule and merely reigned, for 
power passed into the hands of Pepin. There were for many 
years no more divisions made of the kingdom. Pepin recog- 
nized the king who ruled in Neustria as sole king of the Franks. 
It was over half a century before his family dared depose the 
Merovingians and take the crown. 

54. The Limits of Francia. — During this period the Franks 
ceased to look chiefly to the south for land to conquer. They 
turned about and sought to bring under their rule the tribes 
which had occupied the abandoned homes of the first invaders. 
These included the Germans on both sides of the Main in the 
region later called Franconia, and the Thuringians between the 
Weser and the Saale. They also attacked the Saxons whose 
haunts lay farther northwest. On the east their authority was 
acknowledged by the Bavarians on the banks of the Lech. 
This tribe had lived in Bohemia, a region named from the 
Celtic Boii, whom Caesar mentions. When forced to retire 
before the advancing Slavs the tribe retained the name, trans- 
formed into Baiowarii, or Bavarians. 

55. The Foundations of England. — In Britain hindrances to 
unity were greater than in Gaul. The tribes who crossed the 
North Sea as conquerors possessed no unity. They had been 
less influenced by Roman ideas than other Germans. Nor did 
these ideas reach them through the conquered Britons, for 



56 



THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 



the British population was almost wholly swept away, especially 
in the eastern part of the island. Moreover, Christianity had 
made no converts among them until over a century after their 
first settlements. The early history of these settlements is a 
dreary catalogue of battles with Britons or conflicts with each 
other. Now one tribal king and now another would gain the 
mastery and take the lead against the stubborn foe. The 

names of several of these 
little kingdoms have been 
preserved in English 
county names, — Essex, 
Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
Kent. Gradually the 
kingdoms along the east- 
ern and southeastern shore 
became more peaceful, con- 
tenting themselves with 
the lands they held. The 
interminable task of war 
passed to those farther 
west and north. Since 
these tribes also were not 
in great need of land, they 
gradually ceased to drive the Britons from their homes and 
sought only to conquer or enslave them. Among the fighting 
western kingdoms supremacy belonged to Northumberland, 
particularly in the first half of the seventh century, or Mercia, 
in the eighth century, but finally to Wessex, which early in 
the ninth century was to give to the English their first real 
king, Egbert. After Christianity had won over the English, 
the newly organized Church did much to bring the scattered 
peoples to a feeling of unity. In Gaul the tendency toward 
division was so strong that, by and by, there were held no 
councils at which all the Erankish bishops could be present; 
but in England, partly because there were so many little 
kingdoms, the Church triumphed over this obstacle, and gave 







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portant station on the Fosse road, 



THE OLD ORDER CHANGES 57 

the English in its councils their first example of organized 
unity. This was another fortunate consequence of the victory 
of the Roman party over the British party at the synod of 
Whitby. 

56. The Lombards, the Empire, and the Papacy. — In Italy 
the Lombards were unable to conquer the domains of the 
Empire and unite the peninsula under a single rule like that of 
Theodoric. Had they succeeded, the course of Italian history 
would have been like that of Frankish or English history. 
Italy would not have remained for more than a thousand years 
simply a "geographical expression." Their failure was not 
due to their early conversion to Arianism, for this they aban- 
doned and became zealous protectors of the Church. It was 
due, at first, to the stout defence of the Roman towns ; but, 
afterward, to the determination of the popes not to have a 
master so energetic, so ambitious, and so near at hand as the 
Lombard king. The emperor had been distant and his repre- 
sentative, the exarch, had been the pope's rival rather than 
his ruler. 

57. The Old Order Changes. — Meanwhile, all through the 
West, Roman methods of government had been generally 
abandoned. The territorial city, especially in the northern 
part of Gaul, was subdivided. In both Gaul and Italy, includ- 
ing Greek as well as Lombard Italy, all the local governmental 
powers were gradually put into the hands of a count or duke 
or tribune. Occasionally in Gaul several of these divisions 
under counts were united under a duke. In eastern Gaul 
there came to be a duke of Champagne, a duke of Alsace, and 
a duke of Burgundy. Beyond the Rhine these dukes were 
really tribal chiefs or kings. The only way the king could 
restrain the count was by sending emissaries or inspectors 
called 7nissi, but as yet they appeared too infrequently to 
serve the purpose. When the count was a tyrant, treating 
brutally those in his power, it often happened that the richer 
landowners in the region asked of the king the privilege of 
having their estate free or immune from the intrusion of the 



58 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 

count or his officers. If the king made such a grant of immu- 
nity, the one who received it administered justice and collected 
taxes within his own domain, and the king alone had the right 
to interfere with him. At first he turned over the proceeds 
of the taxes to the royal officers, but a time came when the 
old system of taxation disappeared or lingered in other forms. 
In this case sometimes the landowner continued to collect from 
the serfs or coloni on his estate the land tax as a yearly charge 
due him personally. The same might be done by a count or 
duke himself did he have estates in the locality. After the 
beginning of the seventh century it was customary in Gaul to 
choose counts from among the local landowners and to give 
them as salary the use of certain estates. The result of all 
these things was that the common people could hardly tell 
what powers the counts had as royal officers and what as rich 
landowners. The two, land and power, began to go together. 

58. The New Nobility. — The richer landlords and the royal 
officers had another source of influence. Much as the early 
German war chiefs gathered about thejn youths ambitious of 
winning glory in fighting, so these new nobles admitted into 
their families boys or young men who wished to seek honors 
or places of power. In return for this favor they felt bound 
to serve faithfully their patron. Others sought the same 
privileges for still more practical reasons, either because the 
law gave them little protection against their enemies or because 
they hoped for some privilege beyond their reach unless they 
were supported by a great name. To be received in this way 
by a noble was called recommendation, somewhat as in the 
case of the petty landowners of the later Roman Empire. 
Such agreements were not enforced by law, but they were 
supported by custom, and the custom of one day may become 
the next day's law. So common was this arrangement that 
names began to be found for the patron and for his followers. 
The patron was called a senior, a word which was to develop 
in France into the mediaeval seigneur. His man or follower 
was named a vassus, or vassal, in England a gesith, later 



THE PEOPLE 59 

a thegn. There were even beginnings of a gradation in such 
patronage, for the count might be specially recommended to 
the duke, and he to the king. 

59. Land. — Before the middle of the eighth century another 
thing became common, which also looked toward the new so- 
ciety which was forming. When the Franks first came into 
Gaul, the kings had given much land to their followers without 
any expectation of taking it again. The Church, into whose 
hands land also passed, but from which it did not return, 
devised a way to use its surplus land without losing the title 
to it. A landless man would ask the bishop or abbot that the 
use of a piece of land be granted him as a favor or benefit 
(per beneficium). This land was granted either for a definite 
number of years or for one or two lifetimes. It did not be- 
come hereditary. It was quite naturally called a benefice, for 
it was a real favor. The later Merovingian kings, or the 
mayors of the palace, thought it a good plan to grant out 
Church lands in this way with or without the consent of the 
Church, and, finally, they began to make the same use of their 
own lands. Such grants of benefices might or might not be 
made to those who had recommended themselves. As yet 
there was no connection between the two acts. Had the 
acceptance of a piece of land as a benefice necessarily carried 
with it the performance of definite duties as a vassal, the feudal 
system would already have been in existence. 

60. The People. — Although the number of those who still 
owned small farms was decreasing as the process of recommen- 
dation went on, there were still the same classes of men which 
were found in the later Empire, — slaves, freedmen, coloni, and 
free farmers, mechanics, or merchants. In England the num- 
ber of freemen was relatively large because the British popu- 
lation had been exterminated rather than enslaved, and 
because the proportion of slaves and freemen among the 
Germans was smaller than in an old Roman community like 
Gaul. The European cities had lost so many of their inhabit- 
ants that crops could occasionally be raised within their walls. 



60 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 

Other crops could be cultivated in lands lying close at hand, 
so that there came to be little traffic between country and 
town. The villas or villages of the great landowners gathered 
within their own limits the few simple industries that were 
necessary. This, in turn, injured the towns, depriving them of 
their market. In only a few towns did the greater industries 
succeed in maintaining a show of their former activity. The 
Italian cities were stronger than those in Gaul, although many 
of them had been forever ruined by the Lombard wars. The 
nobility which grew up never could free themselves altogether 
from the influence of these towns. They became to a greater 
degree than the Frankish lords a city nobility. 

61. The Byzantine Empire from 565 to 717. — The Empire's 
losses had been great, but its lands were still imposing in extent. 
Although the northern frontier had been pushed back to the 
Balkans by the Bulgarians, and Slavic settlers were finding 
homes everywhere in the Balkan peninsula, the imperial 
domain included what is now Servia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. 
It extended westward around the northern end of the Adriatic 
and halfway down the eastern coast of Italy. From Kavenna 
it controlled a strip leading toward Rome by way of Perusia, 
although this cut the southern Lombards from those in the 
north. The territory about Eome and Naples, the southern 
ends of the peninsula, and the three islands of Sicily, Sardinia, 
and Corsica made up the western territories, while Greece and 
Asia Minor formed those on the south and east. The hold 
upon the more distant part of this Empire must always have 
been uncertain ; but the central regions were steadily moulded 
into a practically homogeneous people, which, in its sympathies, 
its institutions, and its religious beliefs, was strongly Greek. 
The bond of union was not race but religion. In the Empire, 
still more than in the West, the Church exerted an irresistible 
unifying force. Although the emperors were regarded as the 
successors of Augustus and Constantine, the heirs of the Roman 
name, they were fast becoming simply Greek or Byzantine. They 
forgot how to speak Latin. Even before Justinian's century 



NEW INVADERS 61 

closed they had ceased to publish their laws and ordinances in 
the old imperial tongue. To their titles were added Greek 
titles, like despotes and basileus. The divisions of the Empire 
were called themes instead of provinces. 

62. New Invaders. — In Syria and Africa it was the Moslems 
who robbed the Empire of territory. About 673 they had 
directly attacked Constantinople. The siege lasted for several 
years, but the Arab fleet was finally beaten off, largely by the 
aid of swift fire-ships, which possibly used the deadly compound 
known as Greek fire. In Europe the Slavs had taken the 
place of the Germans as the northern foe. Before their ear- 
liest emigrations the Slavs lived along the Don, the Dnieper, 
and the Vistula, their settlements stretching no farther north 
than the fifty-fifth degree of north latitude. On the south 
they were cut off by other tribes from the shores of the Black 
Sea. They were called by the Germans Wends, or people of 
the prairie, and they named themselves Serbs. Later they 
took the name Slavs, the original meaning of which is even 
more uncertain than that of Serbs. It was not until the sixth 
century, after the Ostrogoths had left the Danube valley for 
the conquest of Italy, that great masses of Slavs moved south- 
ward, although many scattered groups had already settled 
within the Empire. There was a tradition that the emperor 
Justinian was descended from Slavic peasants. The lands 
from which they set out are now called Transylvania and 
Rumania. At first, as they had no strong national organiza- 
tion, they became tributary to the Empire, so that their presence 
did not change the line of the frontier. They penetrated 
farther and farther southward and westward until they 
reached the southern point of ancient Hellas, the slopes of the 
Alps, and the borders of southeastern Germany. In these new 
homes they remained, and many a modern Greek is descended, 
not from the people of Herodotus or Pericles, but from a race 
of barbarians of which the ancient Greeks never heard. The 
Servians, another group of Slavs, retained one of the race 
names. Still another came to be called Slovenian and dwelt 



62 



THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 




SUMMARY 63 

in southern Hungary. Those who settled immediately south 
of the Danube were in the last part of the seventh century 
conquered by an Asiatic people called Bulgars or Bulgarians, 
and, although they soon absorbed their conquerors, they were 
by them formed iuto a strong state which threw off the yoke of 
the Greeks at Constantinople. 

63. Westward Advance and Retreat. — The Slavs also 
moved directly westward from their early homes, and did not 
stop until they had advanced beyond the river Elbe. They 
expelled the Germans from Bohemia. There they were named 
Czechs, while farther east they were called Poles, Moravians, 
and Slovacs. At the end of the seventh century this move- 
ment stopped, for on its western edges it met the firm obsta- 
cle of German advance organized by the Frankish leaders. 
Slowly the Slavs were forced backward toward the Vistula. 
They also lost a part of the conquests in Bohemia. But the 
expanding vitality of the race was not exhausted ; this simply 
took a new direction and marched northward into what came 
to be called Great Russia. Thus far the Slavs had remained 
heathen. It was not until the ninth and tenth centuries 
that they were converted to Christianity. Even then part of 
them accepted a Christianity which was no longer in sympathy 
with western Christendom. 



SUMMARY 

I. The "West. — 1. The Franks: (a) quarrels over the heritage of 
Chlodwig, personal feuds ; (&) rise to power of the mayors of the 
palace ; (c) the victory of Pepin ; (d) extent of Frankish rule. 
2. England : (a) results of the manner of the conquest ; (6) strag- 
gles for supremacy among the tribal kingdoms ; (c) influence of 
the Church toward unification. 3. Italy t (a) failure of the 
Lombards to conquer the peninsula ; (&) attitude of the popes in 
the struggle. 4. Results for civilization : (a) growing power of 
local nobles ; (6) immunity from interference of royal officers ; 
(c) the new nobles and their followers or vassals ; (d) land granted 
as a benefice ; (e) the people in the country grouped about the 
noble, the towns impoverished with the decrease of trade. 



64 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW PEOPLES 

II. The East. — 1. Size of the Empire. 2. It becomes Greek in cus- 
toms, language, and spirit. 3. New attacks on its frontiers. 
4. The Slavs : (a) period of their emigration ; (&) given organi- 
zation by the Bulgars ; (c) their movement westward to the 
Elbe ; {d) the different peoples of Slavic origin. 

FURTHER STUDY 
General Reading : Histories of separate countries mentioned in Ch. 1. 
Paragraphs: — 
52-53. Wars Among the Franks : Kitchin, L, 81-98 ; Emerton, 68-72. 

55. Growth of the English Nation : Church, 132-177 ; Green, Short 

History, 14-44. 

56. The Lombards and the Papacy : Bury, II., 439-449 ; Oman, Dark 

Ages, Ch. 1G. 
57-60. Compare paragraphs 7-13, in order to note changes in gov- 
ernment and society since the later Roman Empire. 

61. Byzantine Empire, character: Bury, II., 167-174; Oman, Byzan- 

tine Empire, Ch. 11. 

62, 63. The Slavs : Ereeman, Historical Geography of Europe, Bury 

ed. (see Index) ; Rambaud, Chs. 2, 3 ; Kovalevsky, Ch. 1. 

Additional Reading : Rambaud, History of Bussia, 3 vols. ; Kovalev- 
sky, Bussian Political Institutions ; Morfill, Bussia and Poland. 

For Review, Chs. 1-4 : 395-732, the fall of the Roman Empire and the 
transformation of Europe. 

Changes : 1. In the geography of Europe : (a) boundaries of the Em- 
pire in 395 and at the end of the seventh century ; (6) boundaries 
of Christendom at these dates; (c) kingdoms which had sup- 
planted the Empire, particularly in the west and north ; (d) ter- 
ritory lost to the Empire by 732 ; (e) lands under Slavic rule. 
2. In population : '(«) German element within the Empire before 
the invasions began ; (6) German tribes which had found perma- 
nent homes within the boundaries of the old Empire ; (c) German 
tribes, conquerors at first, afterward exterminated ; (d) the Slavs 
within the Empire and the independent Slavs, their contact with 
the Germans ; (e) the Saracen invasion us an emigration or as the 
conversion of conquered tribes to Mohammedanism. 3. In gov- 
ernment : contrast between old imperial government, its officers, 
its system of taxes, its vast expenditures, and the new monarchies 



SUMMARY 6b 

of the West with nobles becoming independent and collecting the 
taxes for themselves. 4. In society : (a) the noble, with his 
villa, his slaves and his tenant farmers, his increasing power ; 
(&) the ordinary freeman in town and country ; (c) the land 
question, effect of the invasions on the great estates, growth of the 
custom of granting land as benefices. 5. In religion : (a) Chris- 
tianity, the state religion ; (&) organization of the Church in the 
East and the West ; (c) growth of the papacy ; (d) monasticism ; 
(e) missionary work ; (/) Mohammedanism, its origin, teachings, 
and conquests. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

64. What Three Great Franks accomplished, 714-814. — Dur- 
ing the century which followed the defeat of the Moslems at 
Tours all petty tribal conflicts, even the movements of emigrant 
peoples, were pressed into the background by several events 
which influenced still more deeply the succeeding history of 
Europe. It was this century that saw the Greeks lose their 
hold on central Italy and the popes take their place as rulers. 
The dream of a united Lombard kingdom of Italy was finally 
dispelled and instead there was a crude revival of the Roman 
Empire with a Frankish king as emperor. These events were 
brought about largely by three remarkable Franks, — Charles 
Martel, Pepin, and Charles the Great, who had supplanted the 
Merovingian kings and had made a close alliance with the 
Church. The opportunity which the times offered them was 
unique, but only such men were equal to the emergency. Had 
their strong arms not held in subjection their nobles and all 
the ambitious chieftains of dependent tribes, the dark disorder 
of later days would have hastened on. When they were gone 
not even their example nor the magic of the new imperial name 
could keep anarchy from overshadowing all Europe and the 
true dark ages from beginning. 

65. Pepin becomes King, 751. — Charles Martel was the son 
of that mayor of the palace who at Testry had gained control 
over both parts of the Frankish monarchy. Like his father 
he had fought his way to power. He not only forced the 
nobles to obey, but also forced border peoples like the Bava- 
rians and the Saxons to recognize his supremacy. When the 



ENMITY BETWEEN EMPIRE AND PAPACY 67 

country through which the Garonne flows, and which was 
called Aquitaine, tried to break away and establish its inde- 
pendence, he subdued the revolt. Although in order to gain 
adherents he did not hesitate to grant to them as benefices the 
use of Church lands, he supported heartily the work of Boni- 
face as the organizer of churches in Germany and as the 
reformer of the Frankish Church. The valuable help that he 
gave caused the pope to think he might be used to beat off the 
Lombards, who were just then more seriously threatening what 
was left of the Empire in Italy. Meantime, though Charles 
was really sovereign and though for several years before his 
death there was no king, he did not take the crown. His son 
Pepin also waited ten years more before he ventured to sup- 
plant the phantom Merovingian monarchs. Finally, he sent 
an embassy to the pope to ask whether they should be kings 
who bore the name but did not have royal authority. The 
pope wisely replied that it was better that he who had the 
power should also have the name of king. The Frankish 
chiefs assented in their assembly and so the last Merovingian 
was shorn of his royal locks and shut up in a monastery, while 
Pepin was crowned, probably by the great bishop Boniface. 
A little over two years afterward the pope himself crossed 
the Alps, solemnly anointed Pepin king, and obtained from him 
the promise to march into Italy to deliver the imperial cities, 
which, with the exception of Home, had fallen into the hands 
of the Lombards. This consecration of the monarch by the 
Church gave the crown a new sanctity. Henceforward the 
Frankish kings were the "Lord's anointed/' upon whom it 
was sacrilege as well as treason to lay violent hands. 

66. Enmity between Empire and Papacy. — If Eome was 
not to surrender to the Lombards, help must be gained from 
some one besides the emperor. He had made no successful 
effort to save the other cities. The pope had another reason 
to find fault with him. This was the dispute about the use in 
the Church of pictures and images of Christ and the saints. 
The ancient Greeks had not been content with a simple wor- 



68 THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

ship of those spirits of mountain or river or the ancestral 
hearth in whom they trusted ; they sought to portray their 
ideas of the gods in painting and sculpture. This artistic 
impulse, which had produced forms of such beauty and 
strength, naturally led them to paint pictures or carve images 
of the saints who had replaced the gods and heroes. The 
common people of the day supposed that such images pos- 
sessed marvellous powers. After the rise of Mohammedanism 
the eastern Christians were often embarrassed to explain the 
difference between their religion and idolatry. A few of the 
bishops desired to restore worship to its earlier and simpler 
forms. A successful soldier, Leo the Isaurian, who, in 717, 
before he had been on the throne six months, had saved Con- 
stantinople from a new attack of the Arabs, eagerly took up 
the cause of reform and even attempted to reduce the power of 
the monks, zealous advocates of the use of images. By his 
enemies he was called the Iconoclast or image-breaker. His 
policy was continued by his immediate successors. So persist- 
ent were these emperors that they lost the sympathy of both 
Greek and Italian peoples, who were angry at the dishonor done 
their patron saints. In Italy the papacy led the opposition. 

67. States of the Church. — Pepin did not find it easy to 
keep his promise, for his lords were loath to make war upon 
the Lombards. He was obliged to lead two expeditions into 
Italy, the second in 756, before Aistulf, the Lombard king, 
would finally surrender his conquests. These Pepin did not 
restore to the emperor. He took the keys of the cities and 
laid them upon the tomb of St. Peter. At the same time he 
drew up a document, called a donation, giving the pope pos- 
session of these cities. Both king and pope felt instinctively 
that in days when power rested upon control of vast estates 
and strong cities the papacy could not maintain or extend its 
influence unless it was lord of visible domains. This was the 
beginning of the States of the Church, which remained a 
separate territory until the unification of Italy under Victor 
Emmanuel in 1870. 



CONQUEST OF THE SAXONS 69 

68. Pepin's Greatness. — Next to his campaigns against the 
Lombards the most important achievement of Pepin was the 
conquest of Aquitaine. The people, chiefly the old Gallo- 
Roman stock, were restless under Frankish rule and readily 
listened to their duke, who urged them to fight for indepen- 
dence. Pepin resolved to subdue them thoroughly. In a 
campaign, resumed year after year from 760 to 768, he broke 
the power of resistance. As his army advanced he built for- 
tresses and placed the government of counties under Franks or 
trustworthy Aquitanians. So well was this work done that 
it taught his great son Charles how to subdue the Saxons and 
how to organize the Bavarians. Indeed, had this son not been 
so great, Pepin would have been counted oftener among the 
most famous princes of Europe. 

69. Charlemagne in Italy. — Charles is commonly called 
Charlemagne, which is the French form of Carolus Magnus, or 
Charles the Great. From the beginning of his reign in 708 
until his death, forty-six years later, he was ceaselessly 
occupied, not only with the administration of the kingdom, 
but with the extension of its frontiers. He was early called 
into Italy to compel the new Lombard king, Desiderius, to 
surrender the cities which he had seized in spite of Pepin's 
donation. Desiderius did not attempt to resist him in the 
field, but shut himself up in Pavia. While the siege was being 
pushed forward Charles made a journey to Rome. The pope 
would have been better pleased had he recrossed the Alps 
after forcing the Lombards to give up the cities. Charles had 
other intentions. He renewed the donation of Pepin and 
returned to capture Pavia. King Desiderius, many of whose 
nobles had been won over by Charles, was forced in 774 to sur- 
render and to pass the remainder of his days in a monastery. 
Charles w r as crowned king of the Lombards. He had also 
been given the title "patrician of Rome" by the pope, but this 
was a vague honor which Pepin had also received. 

70. Conquest of the Saxons, 772-803. — Even before he de- 
scended into Italy, Charles had begun his efforts to subdue 



70 



THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 



and christianize the fierce Saxons, who had been attacked also 
by Charles Martel and Pepin. The lands of the Saxons com- 
menced a few leagues beyond the right bank of the Rhine and 




stretched northward to the borders of what is now Denmark. 
Their southern boundary could be roughly traced by a line 
running from Cologne toward Leipsic until it touched the 



MANY FRONTIERS 71 

river Saale, which with the Elbe formed the lower eastern 
boundary. Again and again Charles invaded the Saxon country 
only to find that after he was gone revolt burst out. The 
Saxons were not united in a kingdom nor were they organized 
well for defence, but they were fighting for their religion as 
well as for their independence. The only chieftain who ap- 
pears to have exercised great influence over them was Widu- 
kind. Until he surrendered and was baptized no measures, 
however savage, subdued the spirit of resistance. At one 
time Charles, exasperated by a new revolt and unable to seize 
Widukind himself, ordered forty -five hundred of his followers to 
be beheaded. This massacre of Verden was followed by a decree 
which threatened with death any one who kept up the old 
religious rites or refused baptism or did not observe the fasts 
proclaimed by the Church. Companies of missionary priests 
and monks went about with the army. As one part of Saxony 
after another was forced to submit, counts were appointed to 
administer the districts, and bishoprics were founded. Many 
of the bishoprics, like Minister, Bremen, Hildesheim, and 
Halberstadt, founded either by Charlemagne or shortly after 
his death, were to become the centres of towns, so that all 
southern and western Germany was eventually covered with 
Church states which lasted until the days of Napoleon. Where 
Charles could not break the spirit of the Saxons he compelled 
them to emigrate to the land of the Franks. Tradition says 
that from a family of such emigrants sprang the Capetian 
kings who were to rule France for nearly a thousand years. 
Finally the conquest of Saxony was completed and the frontiers 
of the " Christian people " pushed as far north as Denmark and 
eastward to the Elbe. 

71. Many Frontiers. — Duke Tassilo of Bavaria attempted, 
as had the duke of Aquitaine, to make himself independent, 
but, unlike Pepin, Charles had merely to make a display of 
force to compel his submission. The duke was deposed in 
788, was shut up in a monastery, as was usual in such cases, 
and his domains were governed by counts. Still farther east, 



72 THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

Charles crushed the Avars, a people which were always threat- 
ening invasion and included the remnants of the earlier Huns. 
The Slavs beyond the Elbe were also forced to acknowledge 
his power, though he did not try to bring them directly under 
his rule. Quarrels between the Moslem chieftains in Spain 
aided, in 778, in conquering the region immediately south of 
the Pyrenees. There was already a little Christian kingdom, 
called Asturias, in the northwest, where the people had uever 
been subdued by the Moslems. Out of this kingdom and of 
the new possessions of the Franks were to grow the kingdoms 
of Portugal, Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, which were to play 
an important part in the building up of Spain. Since on all 
the frontiers of the Prankish dominion there was constant 
danger of war, it was unsafe to leave these border lands or 
marches under ordinary counts, officers who at this time were 
frequently changed, and so the custom arose of uniting the 
whole of each border land under a count called the prefect of 
the frontier, who was left in command years at a time. In 
Germany such a man came to be called a markgraf or mar- 
grave, and in England a count of the inarch. 

72. Charlemagne crowned Emperor. — The territory over 
which Charles ruled was now greater in extent than that under 
the government of the Greek emperors. His title was " king of 
the Franks, governing the Gauls, Germany, and Italy," but so 
great and so wisely used was his power that his peoples were 
not content with such a simple title. They began to call him 
"lord of the earth," " whom the Creator in his mercy has given 
to peoples as a defender and a father." It was natural to think 
that he was the true successor of the emperors who once 
brought peace and order to the western world. Learned men 
still believed in the Empire, for had not St. Jerome proved 
from the prophecy of Daniel that this Empire was the fourth 
monarchy, which could end only with the second coming of 
Christ ? Such thoughts also came to the mind of Charles. He 
desired to have the vague privileges suggested by the title 
" patrician " more exactly denned. It happened that just 



THE LAWS 73 

before the close of the century Irene, the mother of the young 
emperor, Constantine VI., put out her son's eyes, thrust him 
into a dungeon, and attempted to rule the Empire in his place. 
She was regarded as a usurper, and many in the West thought 
the Empire at Constantinople had come to an end. About the 
same time, Charles was obliged to go to Rome to protect Pope 
Leo III., who had been brutally treated by a Roman mob, and 
who had fled even into the Saxon country to find Charles. In 
November, 800, the cavalcade entered Rome. Some weeks 
were needed to settle the trouble between the pope and the 
Romans. Just what other questions were discussed we do not 
know. On Christmas Day Charles entered the church and 
knelt at the altar. Suddenly Leo placed a crown upon his 
head and the people cried out " To Charles, the most pious 
Augustus, crowned of God, the great and peace-giving emperor, 
be life and victory." Apparently Charles was surprised by 
this act, for his friend and biographer, Einhard, afterward 
wrote that Charles " declared that he would not have set foot 
in the church, although it was a great feast day, if he could 
have foreseen the design of the pope." Many explanations 
have been given of the strange fact, because it is certain that 
Charles intended some day to take the title. Possibly he did 
not wish to be crowned by the pope in that way, lest the pope's 
successors should claim that they had a right to make and to 
unmake emperors. Einhard adds in his account that the 
"Roman emperors," that is the Greeks, took this coronation 
very ill. At first Charles thought of marrying Irene and of 
reigning with her over both Empires. After she was over- 
thrown and driven into exile, he undertook to make a treaty 
with the Greek emperor, that his title might be recognized. 
The affair dragged on several years, but finally the Greek 
envoys hailed him as basileus, though the treaty was not 
ratified until after his death. 

73. The Laws. — Charles was a lawgiver as well as a con- 
queror. Although he was too powerful for men to resist his 
will openly, he did nothing save through the advice of his 



74 THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

nobles and by the consent of the great Prankish assemblies 
named the " Fields of May." These laws were called capitu- 
laries. Some of them were simple orders to his officers, others 
were directions for the management of his vast estates, and 
still others additions to the ordinary laws. He did not attempt, 
like Justinian and, in modern times, Bonaparte, to work over 
all the laws into a single code. In his reign every man con- 
tinued to live under his own law, be it Roman or Salic or Bur- 
gundian. Many merely local customs were also growing into 
laws. The whole Frankish territory was divided into about 
three hundred counties, some large and others small. The 
duchies disappeared. In managing county affairs it was not 
easy to draw the line between the duties of count and of bishop, 
for an offence which disturbed the peace and therefore should 
be judged by the count might also be a sin which the bishop 
must punish. The quarrels of counts and bishops often 
troubled Charles. In order to hold both to a strict account, 
after 802 he regularly sent emissaries, or missi, all over the 
Empire. Two were generally sent together, a count and a 
bishop. They were commanded to see that the laws were 
obeyed, and that no one " prevailed against the churches of 
God, or the poor, or widows, or minors, or any Christian man." 
Some of them soon discovered that in certain counties justice 
was openly sold. 

74. Lords and Vassals. — The efforts of Charles to make his 
rule just and fair to all were less successful because of the 
heavy burdens that the constant wars laid upon the freemen. 
Nowadays such burdens would come in the form of increased 
taxation, but the Roman system of taxation had almost disap- 
peared. As Charles could not raise money or borrow it in 
order to hire men and equip them, it had become the duty of 
each individual who was rich enou'gh to arm and send a soldier 
at his own expense. Poorer freemen must combine either to 
arm one of their own number or to send some one else. Often 
a rich landowner would threaten to have a poorer neighbor 
sent off to the army unless he would give up his little farm, 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 75 

holding it henceforth as a benefice. Since the number of free- 
men was not large enough to furnish the needed recruits, 
Charles was obliged to demand that those who held benefices 
of a certain size should furnish a man or go themselves. He 
also commanded that these men go to the rendezvous with 
either the count or their " senior." This was the first clear 
recognition in the law of the relation between the man who 
held a benefice and him from whom it had been received. To 
prevent these " seniors " from standing between him and his 
subjects, Charles compelled every man to take a solemn oath of 
allegiance. The very words of the oath showed that the obli- 
gations of men to seniors or lords were already held sacred. 
These words were, " I promise to be faithful ... as a man 
should be to his lord." 

75. The Church. — The notion that the Church should be 
left to manage its own affairs would have seemed wrong to 
Charles. He dreamed of an Empire that should be Christian, 
and he thought it his duty to watch over the choice of bishops, 
to provide for a better educated clergy, and to see that no 
heresies nor pagan superstitions crept into the Church. He 
ordered a more accurate copy of Jerome's translation of the 
Bible to be made because the copies in use had been carelessly 
prepared. Alcuin, one of the scholars at his court, procured 
in the convents of southern Italy several Bibles copied in the 
days of Theodoric. With the aid of these an accurate text of 
the Latin Bible was completed and became the only version 
used in the West. 

76. The Revival of Learning. — Alcuin was an Anglo-Saxon, 
trained in the school of York, which was still under the influ- 
ence of a great scholar named Bede, who had died in 735. 
Charles had found him in Italy and had brought him to 
Aix-la-Chapelle in 782 to establish a school in the palace. 
Here youths were taught all the learning that had survived 
the ruin of the Roman Empire. In such efforts Charles was 
aided by several energetic bishops, who founded free schools 
for the children living within their dioceses. For a time it 



76 THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

seemed as if there was to be an intellectual renaissance, or 
revival of learning, and that the new Frankish civilization 
would produce poets and historians as did the elder Empire. 
Several biographies were written, and histories were begun, 
generally in the form of annals or brief statements of each 
year's events. But such a revival could not last long, for only 
the strong arms of the three great Franks kept western Europe 
from again falling into disorder. Moreover, Latin had ceased 
to be the language of the common people. Its place in the 
region of modern France was taken by the " Roman language," 
something halfway between Latin and French. In Italy and 
Spain the beginnings of Spanish and of Italian were similarly 
wrought out in daily speech. Along the Rhine it was German 
that was taking shape. 

77. Charlemagne. — When a man has shown himself great 
we are eager to know how he looked, how he lived, and what 
distinguished him from other men. Tradition pictures Charles 
with a massive head, a long flowing beard, and clad in gar- 
ments heavy with jewels ; but Einhard gives a very different 
description. Charles was tall and broad, a little inclined to 
stoutness, with a rather short neck. His eyes were large and 
sparkling, his " nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing 
and merry." He wore the ordinary Frankish dress, "despised 
foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed him- 
self to be robed in them except twice in Rome, when he donned 
the Roman tunic, chlamys, and shoes." Like all noble Franks 
he enjoyed hunting, but he delighted especially in swimming. 
Einhard says that he built his principal palace at Aix-la- 
Chapelle because of its baths. Although in his drinking he 
was temperate, detesting drunkenness, he was a hearty eater, 
so fond of roast venison that he disliked his physicians be- 
cause they urged him to eat boiled meat instead. While at 
table he listened to reading or music. The book he liked 
most to hear was Augustine's City of God. He studied 
astronomy with great interest, and he understood Greek ; but 
he never learned to write, although he " used to keep tablets 



CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS 



77 



and blanks in bed under his pillow that at leisure hours he 
might accustom his hand to form the letters." He loved his 
children, keeping them always about him, and directing their 



TV 

w W 


L, jf 




1 


1 


4 V 


ill 


--■ ., 




i„ * ,p 


m, * 2 -t. >. • «"-.•" 


.. .- . 







Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen). 

Cathedral, of which the round church at the left was built by 
Charlemagne as a palace chapel. In the fourteenth century a 
Gothic choir was added to transform the whole into a cathedral. 



education, but he did not in all things set them a good 
example. 

78. His Successors. — Charlemagne was succeeded in 814 by 
his son Louis, named the Pious because of his humility and 
religious zeal, and the Debonnair, or easy-going, because he 
was mild and easily influenced. Unfortunately those days re- 
quired a stout heart and a strong arm rather than a sweet 



78 THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

disposition and a pure character. Troubles arose as soon as 
Louis began to carry out the old ruinous policy of dividing 
the territory among his sons. Charles had been saved from 
the consequences of a similar mistake by the death of all his 
sons save Louis. The sons of Louis again and again rose 
against him. They even thrust him into a monastery, and 
when he was dead quarrelled among themselves over a division 
of the Empire. A great battle was fought at Fontenet, south 
of Auxerre, but this was not decisive. Finally at Verdun, in 
843, peace was made. According to the terms a long strip of 
country from Beneventum in Italy to the North Sea was given 
to Lothair, the eldest, with the title of " emperor." Beyond 
the Alps this strip was roughly outlined by the Rhine on the 
east and the Rhone, Saone, Meuse, and Scheldt on the west. 
To Louis, or Ludwig, the second son, was given the territory 
east of this strip, and to Charles, the youngest son, all that lay 
to the west. The Emperor Lothair had no effective control 
over his brothers, so that the three parts of the " kingdom of 
the Franks," eastern, middle, and western Francia, became 
three separate kingdoms. In the course of the war Charles 
and Louis had recognized that the inhabitants of eastern and 
western Francia were really distinct peoples. When they 
became allies against Lothair, and swore to support one an- 
other, Charles took the oath before the army of Louis in the 
lingua teudisca, or Tudesque, and Louis before the army of 
Charles in the " Roman " tongue. These oaths are the earliest 
monuments of French and German. There is a double Reason, 
therefore, for taking the Treaty of Verdun as the historical 
beginning of France and Germany. 



EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE 



79 




80 THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE 



SUMMARY 

I. Charles Martel. — 1. Position as mayor of the palace. 2. Con- 
quests : (a) Saracens [Ch. 3] ; (6) Bavarians, Saxons, Aqui- 
tanians ; (c) aids Boniface [Ch. 3]. 
II. Pepin. — 1. Becomes king. 2. In Italy: (a) cause of enmity be- 
tween Empire and popes ; (&) Pepin's expeditions against the 
Lombards; (c) his "donation." 3. Conquest and organization 
of Aquitaine. 

III. Charlemagne. — 1. In Italy: (a) renews donation to papacy; 

(&) becomes king of Lombards. 2. Conquers Saxons : («) loca- 
tion of Saxons ; (b) why they resisted so stubbornly ; (c) mis- 
sionary priests and monks as organizers of conquered territory. 
3. Other conquests : Bavarian Tassilo, the Avars, the Slavs, in 
Spain. 4. Emperor : (a) attitude of people toward Charles ; 

(b) expedition to Rome ; (c) circumstances of coronation ; (d) at- 
titude of the Greeks toward new emperor. 5. Lawgiver : 
(a) Frankish assemblies ; (6) kinds of law ; (c) enforcement of 
law, especially through missi ; (d) effect of constant wars on con- 
dition of freemen ; (e) recognition of relation of lord and vassal ; 
(/) efforts to improve clergy. 6. Revival of learning : (a) Al- 
cuin, the Bible and the palace school ; (6) the writings of the day ; 

(c) changes in language. 7. Appearance and habits of Charles. 

IV. The Carolingians. — 1. Louis, his character and his misfortunes. 

2. The sons of Louis : (a) their wars ; (6) treaty of Verdun and 
its meaning. 
For Comparison. — 1. The boundaries of the empire of Charles and the 
boundaries of the Roman Empire in 395. 2. Size of the empire of 
Charles and size of Byzantine Empire about 700. 3. Difficulties of 
government confronting Charles compared with those of the later 
Roman Empire. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

717. Accession of Leo the Isaurian at Constantinople ; the image contro- 
versy. 

732. Defeat of the Saracens at Tours by Charles Martel. 

751. Pepin becomes king. 

768. Accession of Charles. 

774. Charles becomes king of the Lombards. 

800. Charles crowned Emperor at Rome. 

814. Death of Charles. 

843. Treaty of Verdun. 



SUMMARY 81 



FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading: Eginhard (Einhard), Life of Charlemagne ; modern 
biographies by Mombert, Davis, Hodgkin ; Adams, Civilization, 
Ch. 7 ; Bryce, Chs. 4 and 5 ; Emerton, Medioeval Europe, 3-31 ; 
Kitchin, L, 118-162 ; Henderson, I., Ch. 2. 

Paragraphs : 

65. Pepin : Robinson, Nos. 49-52. 

66. Iconoclasm: Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 41, 42; Bury, II., 428-438, 

460-469, 494-498; Alzog, II., 206-218; briefer treatments in 
Oman's Byzantine Empire, Ch. 15. 

67. 69. States of the Church : compare 38-39 ; Thatcher-McNeal, 

Nos. 43-48 ; Emerton, Introduction, 168-172, 186-189 ; Alzog, II., 
141-147 ; see map 6. 
70. Saxon War : Einhard, sections 7, 8 ; Robinson, Nos. 54-55. Com- 
pare 45 on work of Boniface : for duration of bishoprics, see 
paragraph 374. 

72. Charlemagne, Emperor : Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 8, 13 ; especially 

Bryce, Ch. 5 ; Robinson, No. 56. Compare 26 on meaning of 
"Fall of Rome," in 476. 

73. The Laws : extracts in Robinson, No. 62 ; longer selections in Tr. 

and Bp., Vol. VI., No. 5. In Tr. and Bp., Vol. III., No. 2, p. 2-5, 
is the capitulary " de villis,''' 1 with an inventory of an estate. The 
capitulary of 802 is also in Henderson, Documents, 189-201. 

74. Government and Lords: Compare 57-60, also condition in later 

Roman Empire, 7-13 ; see selections in Robinson, Nos. 58-60. 

75. The Church : Emerton, Introduction, 222-227 ; Alzog, II., 218-222. 

76. Revival of Learning : Einhard's Life of Charlemagne is an ex- 

ample of work in biography ; Charlemagne's attitude appears 
from his own words in Tr. and Bp., Vol. VI., No. 5, p. 12-16, and 
in Robinson, Nos. 63-64. See further, West, Alcuin, or Mombert 
or Hodgkin. 

77. Description of Charlemagne in Einhard, sections 21-27, more 

briefly in Robinson, No. 53. 
73. Strasburg Oaths, in Emerton, Mediaival Eu rope, p. 27 ; Thatcher- 
McNeal, No. 16. Significance of the division of 843, Emerton, 
28-30. 

Additional Reading : Guizot, History of France, 8 vols. 



CHAPTER VI. 

BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

79. Origin of Feudal Society. — Within the century which 
followed the Treaty of Verdun (843) the central government, 
particularly in western Francia, lost its hold upon its subjects. 
They began to be controlled by force or through the gift of 
lands and privileges the acceptance of which bound them to 
the giver. The beginnings of this change reach back to the 
later Roman Empire, but it was hurried to completion in the 
struggles caused by the collapse of Charlemagne's empire and 
by the Norse and Hungarian invasions. Confusion and ruin 
were everywhere. It is true that territories like eastern and 
western Francia held together, mainly because of geographical 
position. Others, like the portion of Lothair, were tossed 
about, divided, and subdivided. No wonder that any man 
strong enough to protect or to menace his terrified neighbors 
was transformed into their actual ruler, either because they 
could not help themselves, or because they cared more for safety 
than for the form of government. 

80. Fate of Lotharingia. — Of the three kingdoms marked 
out at Verdun, middle Francia, or Lotharingia, as it was named 
after its ruler, fell to pieces in about a generation. In the val- 
leys of the Saone and the Rhone was gradually formed .a new 
Burgundy, which included all the older Burgundian kingdom 
except the northwestern part. This was to become the French 
duchy of Burgundy. The southern half was first a kingdom 
by itself called Provence because it included the old Roman 
Provincia. It was natural that this region should fall away 
from the more western Francia. It was separated not merely 

82 



LOTHARINGIA 



83 



MAP NO. 8. 




84 BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

by mountains but also by its civilization, which under the mild 
sway of the early Bnrgundian kings had retained more of the 
Roman laws and customs. After less than two centuries the 
new Bnrgundian kingdom was merged into the restored Roman, 
or German-Roman, Empire. It was its final destiny to be 
slowly recovered for France under the names of Dauphine, 
Provence, Franche-Comte, and Savoy, a process not completed 
until 1860. The northern part of Lotharingia was also at 
first united to east Francia. There was one region which 
remained a bone of contention. This was called Lorraine, a 
name which is a shortened form of Lotharingia, of which it 
was a part. Once during the period it became a little kingdom, 
but it soon was united to east Francia. Its later history is a 
part of the story of the wars between France and Germany 
down to 1871. When such a fate overtook the parts of Lotha- 
ringia north of the Alps, it was inevitable that Italy also 
would be separated from the rest of Charlemagne's empire. 
Two or three times east or west Frankish descendants of 
Charles were crowned emperors, but they gained little con- 
trol of affairs. Italian nobles also contended for the throne. 
There was no hope for a restoration of order until the German 
Otto came down in 962 and restored the Empire. 

81. East Francia. — East Francia, or Germany, was the most 
fortunate of the three kingdoms. When there were no more 
Carolingians, that is, descendants of Charles, to claim the 
throne, the families of the local nobles brought forward able 
men, under whose leadership the German kingdom might 
fairly boast of being the successor of the Frankish empire. 
Although Charles had placed Saxony and Bavaria under 
counts, these peoples and the other Germans as well — the 
Swabians, the Franconians, and the Thuringians — were not 
absorbed into one great whole. As soon as the strong hand of 
the master was withdrawn some noble, a count or a margrave, 
rose to the position of duke. In this way were formed the 
duchies, — Saxony, Swabia, Franconia, and Bavaria. The first 
of the new kings of east Francia was a Franconian, who vainly 



WEST FRAN CIA 



85 



sought to break down the power of the other dukes. His suc- 
cessor was his rival, the duke of Saxony. Henry the Fowler, 
as this king was named, because he was hunting with a falcon 
when in 919 his election was announced to him, changed the 
policy and sought to conciliate the other dukes. The kingship 
was not hereditary, but Henry persuaded the dukes to accept 
his son Otto as his successor. Otto became king in 936. The 
early years of his reign were spent in trying to overcome the 
ducal rivals and bring their peoples more directly under his 
rule. He was at first apparently successful. In the end the 
local nobles were to triumph so completely that the task of 
creating a united Germany remained unaccomplished for cen- 
turies. The principal reason for this failure was the waste of 
German strength in trying to realize the dream of a renewed 
Roman Empire, where pope and emperor would unite to bring 
peace and right doing once 
more into a disordered 
world. This task Otto 
undertook when he was 
crowned emperor at Rome. 
82. West Francia. — 
The hardest fate was re- 
served for west Francia, 
or France, partly because 
of disputes over the king- 
ship or contests between 
the kings and their great 
nobles, but mostly because 
the Northmen in expe- 
dition after expedition 
spread desolation every- 
where. Some of the kings would have been capable in other 
days of reigning worthily, but all the resources which able 
kings find at hand were gone. The system of taxation which 
would have furnished money for an army had disappeared; the 
royal officers could venture to make themselves practically 




A 8hip of the Northmen, or Vikings. 

Found in 1880 near Gokstad, Norway, 
buried on the seashore. Its dimensions: 
78 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 4 feet 
deep amidships. No deck, one mast, 
pierced for 16 oars on each side. Owner, 
a ninth century warrior named Anlaif. 



86 BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

independent in their counties; the treasure of lands and of 
privileges with which to attract followers was speedily ex- 
hausted, so that the last descendants of Charles had scarcely 
a city that they could call their own. Even before their family 
was set aside, lords of another house had twice occupied the 
throne. This new house was founded by Count Robert, 
rightly called the Strong, because he was the hero of the fight 
against the Northmen and the Bretons during the reign of 
Charles, the favorite son of Louis the Pious. Robert's reward 
was a duchy, including the land between the Seine and the 
Loire. One of Robert's sons was king for ten years and 
another for a few months, but the time had not come when the 
family of Charles could be pushed aside permanently, so that 
Robert's grandson, Hugh the Great, was content to be a maker 
of kings and the real ruler of France. His son, Hugh Capet, 
played the same part for thirty years, but in 987 there hap- 
pened what had happened once before — he who held the 
power also received the name of king. Thus the Capetian 
family mounted the throne upon which they were to reign 
until the Revolution of 1789. The French have always looked 
back on Charles and his family as French kings, so that before 
Hugh was made king there had been three named Charles and 
five Louis. Several fared hard at the hands of the nick- 
namers, for Charles II. is known as the " Bald " and Charles 
III. as the " Simple." One Louis is called the " Stammerer " 
and another, " Outre-mer," or Over-sea, because he was brought 
over from England to take the crown. 

83. England. — England suffered as sorely as did France 
from the Northmen, but otherwise there was less strife than on 
the Continent, for the descendants of Egbert of Wessex were 
able and warlike kings. The greatest of them, Alfred, who 
came to the throne in 871, when the Northmen seemed trium- 
phant, is one of the noblest figures in the history of England 
or of any nation. After he had forced the Danes to make 
peace and to accept the Christian faith, he tried to improve 
the condition of his own people. He brought scholars to his 



BANES IN ENGLAND 87 

court from Wales and from Germany. In order to enrich the 
English tongue, which was the language of the common people, 
he translated into it several important Latin books which ex- 
plained the ideas of the Romans and the earlier history of the 
world. He also encouraged the monks to put together what was 
known about the English in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the 
first historical work of any modern people in their own tongue. 
84. Danes in England. — The Northmen who first devas- 
tated and then occupied parts of England and France in the 
ninth and tenth centuries came from what are now Norway, 
Sweden, and Denmark. During the same period Northmen 
also penetrated into Russia and founded a kingdom ; others 
emigrated to Iceland and formed settlements in Greenland. 
A little later they crossed the Atlantic and reached the shores 
of America. Some were also to found a principality in south- 
ern Italy. But they accomplished most in France and England. 
It was chiefly bands from the peninsula of Denmark that came 
to these lands. The English called them Danes and the 
French, Northmen. Their own country was too small and 
poor to offer all its restless warriors either food or adventures, 
and so they pushed out into the sea in their long boats and 
sailed for the rich shores far to the south. Their coming was 
often so sudden that the inhabitants were helpless. Monas- 
teries and churches were destroyed, towns were sacked or put 
to ransom. Emboldened by their successes, they came in larger 
numbers and ventured to attack the armies of the English 
or Frankish kings. They compelled the vassal kings to pay 
tribute and pressed hard upon Wessex itself. Alfred had 
not been long on the throne when he was driven to take refuge 
in the fens of Somerset. In 878 he gathered his war bands 
again, fell upon the Danes, and forced King Guthrum and his 
followers to be baptized as Christians and to make peace at 
Wedmore. By the terms of the treaty, the Danes were to 
control the country east of a line running from London north- 
west to the Welsh border. Eight years later Alfred forced 
them to cede London and the surrounding district. Although 



88 BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

the kings of Wessex had for a time lost the overlordship of 
England, they actually gained strength, because they were 
obliged to give a better organization to the territories they 
still held. The Danish kingdom soon crumbled. As the 
Danes were of the same race as the English, they were grad- 
ually absorbed by the English population. This facilitated 
the reconquest of northeastern England by the successors of 
Alfred, — a task completed about fifty years after his death. 

85. Danes become Normans in France. — The peace of 
Wedmore led those Danes who did not wish to settle quietly 
in England to seek other lands to plunder. The storm broke 
anew upon west Erancia. Paris had often seen the Northmen, 
who rowed their ships up the winding Seine to the very walls. 
In 885 their fleet stretched for six miles below the cit}^. For 
over a year they vainly attempted to capture the fortified 
bridges that connected the "City " with the north and south 
suburbs, or faubourgs. Finally they were persuaded to with- 
draw by offering them the chance to plunder Burgundy, and 
by the gift of a large sum of money. The hold of the North- 
men upon the lower Seine was fast becoming unshakable. In 
911 Charles the Simple did hardly more than acknowledge 
this fact when he granted the whole region to Hrolf as duke. 
Like Gu thrum before Wedmore, Hrolf pledged himself, with 
his followers, to become Christians. He was baptized with 
great solemnity at Rouen, which became his capital. He was 
now as eager to rebuild monasteries and villages as he had pre- 
viously been to destroy them. It was said that property was 
so safe that a gold ring hung upon the branch of a tree for 
three years and yet no one dared to cast a covetous eye upon 
it. The Northmen or Normans soon forgot their own tongue 
and became the most active leaders of French civilization. 
Such a peace should be remembered as evidence of the good 
sense of Charles, in the same way that the peace of Wedmore 
is credited to the statesmanship of Alfred. 

86. Hungarians. — The Hungarians, or Magyars, were a race 
akin to the Finns, the Avars, and the Huns. They came into 



IMMUNITY 89 

western Europe by the road that the Huns had followed, and 
like them were bold horsemen and fierce plunderers. Western 
as well as eastern Francia was devastated by their invading 
hordes. Just before Charles made his treaty with Hrolf they 
raided Bavaria, and destroyed the Bavarian army, killing its 
duke. Their first serious repulse came from Henry the Fowler 
on the Unstrut in 933, over twenty years later. Another 
twenty years passed and Otto defeated them in Bavaria. 
By this time they had occupied the plains about the Theiss 
and the Danube, where they built up a kingdom, adopted 
Christianity, and long afterward were the bulwark of Europe 
against the Turkish invader. 

87. Consequences. — It was such dangers and disorders that 
gave the nobles, great or small, chance after chance to seize for 
themselves powers that properly belonged to the government. 
All they had to do was to render more general the division, 
already common, of freemen into lords and vassals, and by 
virtue of grants of immunity to keep the officers of the central 
government out of their domains. Both these steps had been 
taken before Charlemagne's family ceased to rule. In 847, 
four years after the Treaty of Verdun, a capitulary or decree 
was issued at Mersen by his grandson Charles that "each free 
man may choose a lord, from us or our faithful, such a one as 
he wishes." About a century later a similar law was decreed 
in England. Only in this way could kings preserve any con- 
trol over men in a society which was rapidly breaking into 
small local groups. 

88. Immunity. — At the same time kings were lavishly 
giving grants of immunity to counts, abbots, bishops, and even 
to influential men who held less important positions or merely 
great estates. The ordinary formula declared that the recipi- 
ent should hold his estate, with all the men upon it, " in entire 
immunity, and without the entrance of any one of the judges 
for the purpose of holding the pleas of any kind of causes." 
Great lords granted to their vassals similar freedom from their 
own or any other person's control. This practice in effect 



90 BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

divided the state into small fragments in which the subjects 
were not under direct obligations to the king. 

89. Land. — If society was to hold together, some bond 
was needed more solid than oaths and more permanent than 
fear. In the earlier period rich noblemen had become patrons 
of ambitious youths or of persons who hoped much from their 
protection. The gain to the lords had been a few more pieces 
of land or a more imposing array of dependents. The situa- 
tion had changed. It was oftener the nobleman who sought 
vassals than the freeman who sought a lord, for the noble 
could not save himself or his domains amid the wreck of society 
unless he had followers bound to bring him aid. As land was 
about the only stable property left, and as power and privileges 
generally went with it, the acceptance of a domain at least 
large enough to support a horseman would create an obligation 
strong enough to unite permanently vassal and lord. These 
gifts of land or benefices had at first been made without expec- 
tation that they would be returned. Afterward they were 
changed into grants for a lifetime or for a definite period. 
They had come to be called fiefs, a term derived, curiously 
enough, from a Frankish word which meant cattle. Kings, 
nobles, and monasteries had begun to give such benefices to 
those who already were, or who wished to be, their vassals. 
In this way the duties of vassalage were attached to pieces of 
land. The combination persisted, and after a time these duties 
were not arranged by a special bargain, but were determined 
by the nature of the fief which the vassal received. With 
different fiefs went different duties. The same man might 
have a dozen titles, and might stand in a variety of different 
relations to as many lords. Even a king might for a certain 
fief be vassal of one of his own vassals. 

90. Offices. — Counts and dukes had received for their work 
as officials the use of certain estates. These gradually came 
to be looked upon as benefices, and, by a natural confusion 
of thought, the office itself, which had been the cause of 
the grant was considered the consequence, that is, a part of the 



DUTIES OF VASSALS 91 

fief. Public office ceased to be a means through which the 
State could guard the subject, assure him justice, and furnish 
him with some things which he could not procure so well for 
himself. It was transformed into a piece of property managed 
primarily for the benefit of the holder. Even abbeys and 
bishoprics were considered fiefs, because upon their election 
to such positions the clergy received many privileges which 
originally belonged to the government. In the end not only 
land but everything the State ordinarily does for the citizen, 
and many other things, were turned into fiefs. Some declared 
that the king held his crown as a fief from God, which he must 
forfeit if he did not rule justly. There also took place a sub- 
division of fiefs, commonly called subinfeudation, so that in a 
county the citadel of a town might belong to one lord, several 
quarters to another, while the bishop might rule a quarter, and 
still other lords have the country-side. 

91. Fiefs Hereditary. — When the notion grew strong that 
all these governmental rights and the benefices to which they 
were attached were property, the lords of high or low degree 
endeavored to hand them down to their children. It was again 
Charles, the grandson of Charlemagne, who, by the Edict of 
Kiersy in 877, practically agreed that if a count died his county 
should go to his son. In doing this he did not start a new 
custom, but simply recognized as legal what ordinarily took 
place. 

92. Duties of Vassals. — The duties of all vassals, from the 
duke of half a kingdom to the baron of a village, were similar, 
though they necessarily varied in number. When the vassal was 
invested with his fief he knelt, unarmed and bareheaded, be- 
fore his lord, placed his hands in his lord's hands, and declared 
himself to be " his man." After he had been raised to his feet 
and kissed, he took an oath of fidelity, and then received a twig 
or a clod of earth in token of the fief itself. He now was under 
obligation to follow his lord upon his expeditions, or fight for 
him in his petty wars, or guard his castle, or if need be sur- 
render his own castle for a time to his lord. If he had 



92 BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

succeeded to a fief, he was obliged to pay a " relief," which 
sometimes amounted to a whole year's revenue; and if he had 
bought the fief, he must pay three years' revenue. On three or 
four special occasions he paid an aid, — when the lord's eldest 
son was knighted, when his daughter was married, and for the 
ransom when the lord was made prisoner. He was to furnish 
his lord, and a certain number of followers, with food and 
lodging when they passed through his fief. He must also 
attend the lord's court several times a year to give him advice 
or assist him in the settlement of quarrels or in the punishment 
of crimes. 

93. General Character of Feudal Government. — Such was the 
system of fiefs or the feudal system. So far as government 
was concerned it seemed like an attempt to organize a country 
on a sort of cooperative scheme, without collecting large sums 
of money in taxes to pay officials, judges, and soldiers. The 
army was brought together by a summons from the king to 
his vassals, who in turn summoned their vassals, and they 
their retainers, and all at the expense of those who came in 
fulfilment of their feudal duties. Justice was not administered 
in tribunals maintained at great expense by the government, 
but in the rude courts of the lords, and in order that they 
might increase their income from the fees. The lords also 
controlled many of the roads and bridges, and levied tolls on 
passing merchants, often without expending any money to keep 
the highways in repair. 

94. The People. — Lords and vassals made up only a small 
portion of the population. They were the aristocracy of the 
day, supported by the unpaid labor, or the dues in money or 
produce, of the villains or serfs, who were the descendants 
of the freemen, the coloni, and the slaves of the later Roman 
Empire. The most of the villains or serfs were farmers or 
farm laborers, some were artisans, a few were merchants. In 
the cities there were a few freemen, tradesmen, or mechanics, 
but their day of influence had not come. It became more and 
more difficult to cross the broad line that separated the lower 



PEASANT BURDENS 93 

classes, chiefly composed of serfs, from the nobles, great or 
small, who drew from them the means of livelihood. Almost 
the only method was through the Church, where even a peas- 
ant's son might some day rise to be a powerful abbot, an arch- 
bishop, or pope. In the end, those above the line were to 
develop into the later aristocracies of Europe, while those 
below were to become the great laboring, manufacturing, and 
mercantile population, out of which were to grow the democra- 
cies of the nineteenth century. 

95. The Serfs. — Although there were still many freemen, 
the majority of the people were serfs, who could not leave 
their estate, nor marry outside it without their lord's consent, 
nor leave their land to any one save their children. They 
were also obliged to pay a special tax. Their condition was 
better than that of the ancient slaves, for they could not be 
sold separate from the land, nor could their land be taken from 
them. If the fief was sold, they belonged to another lord, but 
this change did not necessarily injure them. Their marriages 
were recognized, so that they were really apart of the commu- 
nity and not mere beasts of burden. If their lord happened to 
be a just man, generous and peaceful, their lives might be quiet, 
prosperous, and happy. Unfortunately the lords were often 
quarrelsome and harsh, waging petty wars upon neighboring 
lords. In this case the lot of the peasant was terrible, for the 
best way to starve a lord out was to destroy the crops, burn 
the village, and kill the peasants. 

96. Peasant Burdens. — The ordinary burdens which rested 
upon the peasants may be described as a rude sort of rent. 
Its nature appears in an example taken from one of the vil- 
lages of the Abbey of Mont-Saint-Michel. " The tenants must 
fetch stone, mix mortar, and serve the masons. Toward the 
last of June, on demand, they must mow and turn hay and 
draw it to the manor-house. In August they must reap the 
convent's grain, put it in sheaves, and draw it in." They 
cannot put in their own grain until some one from the convent 
has marked out its share, and this has also been carted to the 



94 



BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 



convent bams. " On the eighth of September the villain 
owes his pork due, one pig in eight. ... On the ninth of 
October he pays the cens [a sort of ground rent]. At Christ- 
mas he owes his chicken due, also the grain due of two meas- 
ures of barley and a quart of wheat. On Palm Sunday he 
owes his sheep due. ... At Easter ... he must plough, 




Abbey of Mont-Saint-Michel. 

Built on a rocky isle near the angle of the French coast made by 
Normandy and Brittany. Its walls were exceptionally strong, 
and were pierced by only one gate. The northern wall is over a 
hundred feet high. In the Hundred Years War this abbey-fortress 
was besieged by the English without success from 1428 to 1444. 



sow, and harrow." His grain must be ground at the lord's mill, 
his bread baked at the lord's bake oven, and his grapes pressed 
at his winepress. Originally it was an advantage to the 
village that the lord built mill and bakery and winepress, 
because the peasants were too poor to provide them, but after 
a time the favor was transformed into the right to receive the 
profits of a monopoly. The lord also had the right to sell his 



FARMS 



95 



wine and other products first. He generally hired no laborers, 
for the peasants were obliged to work for him, often several 
days each week, or at least during certain seasons. Such 
work might be in the fields or about the castle, or upon the 
roads and bridges. At one time there had been no legal limit 
to the amount of this work, but custom and the efforts of the 
peasants themselves eventually made all rights and privileges 
definite. 

97. Farms. — Outside the cities the land throughout western 
Europe was divided into great estates, often the size of an 
American township. In England they were called manors, 
and in France villas, from which the word " village " comes. 
Such an estate might be- 
long to a petty noble or 
to a count, or even to the 
king. The richest nobles 
possessed a great many, 
generally managed by 
stewards. Each estate 
was divided into two por- 
tions, one of which the 
lord retained for his own 
immediate use. The cul- 
tivated land which be- 
longed to the peasants 
was not divided into 
separate farms, but gen- 
erally into three great 
fields, and each field into 
half-acre strips. The 
division into three fields 
was occasioned by the 
general method of cul- 
tivation which allowed the land to rest or lie fallow every third 
year, a method adopted because the peasants did not know 
how to fertilize the soil, or properly to vary the crops. Every 



• \ 

Hg|^HHH 



Castle of Montlhery. 

About fourteen miles south of Paris, built 
in the eleventh century. It is situated on 
a high hill above the village, and threatened 
the road from Paris to Orleans. The barons 
who possessed it were often at war with 
the early Capetian kings. In 1104 it came 
into possession of Philip I., and a little later 
it was dismantled by his son, Louis VI. 



96 BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 

peasant had several strips in each field, it might be sixty or it 
might be thirty or even fewer. This curious system of divid- 
ing the farms into a number of parcels compelled the peasants 
to work together more than ordinary farmers do nowadays. 
Sometimes the lord's land also lay about in the three fields. 
The peasants did not live in houses scattered over the country- 
side, but in a closely built village. The manor-house of the lord 
or his steward might be in the midst of the village or at a little 
distance, surrounded by his lands. If this house was a castle, 
it was often placed upon a neighboring hill, from which its 
strong walls and lofty towers overawed the country for miles 
around. In addition to the cultivated fields there were mead- 
ows, pastures, and woods, to the use of which for their pigs or 
cattle the peasants had some rights. 

98. Duration of Feudalism. — Feudal society reached its ear- 
liest and fullest development in France, although the same 
customs gradually appeared in Germany and England. In 
Italy the continued existence of many Roman towns gave a 
peculiar turn to its growth. It remained the form of social 
order in western Europe until the fourteenth century. 

SUMMARY 

I. Anarchy in Western Europe. — 1. Lotharingia: (a) situation; 
(6) why it fell to pieces so quickly and what separated it from 
West Francia ; (c) "lands formed out of it and their final destiny. 

2. East Francia : (a) boundaries ; (b) the great duchies ; (c) new 
reigning houses ; (d) Hungarian raids ; (e) dream of Empire. 

3. West Francia : (a) why its monarchy was weak ; (b) the later 
Carolingians and their rivals ; (c) Danish attacks and their rela- 
tion to Danish invasions of England ; (e7) origin of the duchy of 
Normandy. 4. England : (a) The kingdom of Wessex ; (6) the 
Danish peril ; (c) Alfred as king ; (d) Alfred and the Danes, 
Wed more. 

II. Result, Feudalism, a New Organization of Society. — 1. The 
individual noble, heir of dying government: (a) gathering about 
himself vassals, pledged to him by ties of honor and grants of 
benefices; (6) treating the offices he holds as hereditary fiefs; 



SUMMARY 97 

(c) independent of royal officers by grants of immunity. 2. Duties 
of vassalage supersede obedience to law : (a) ceremony of homage ; 
(6) obligations toward the lord which result. 3. The people, a 
subject caste : («) classes from which they are descended ; (6) serf- 
dom as a form of slavery ; (c) the dues paid by the peasants ; 

(d) their manner of life ; (e) their villages. 

For Comparison. — 1. The way by which in modern states the public 
work of government and war are provided for, in contrast to the 
method of the feudal system. 2. The present organization of work 
in town and country, contrasted with the feudal method. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

843. Treaty of Verdun. 

877. Capitulary of Kiersy. 

878. Peace of Wedmore. 

911. Creation of the duchy of Normandy. 

936. Accession of Otto the Great. 

962. Otto becomes emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 

987 . Accession of Hugh Capet. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading: Tout, Europe from 918 to 1272 {Empire and Pa- 
pacy) ; Seignobos (Dow ed.), Feudal Begime ; Cheyney, Indus- 
trial and Social History of England; Keary, Vikings in Western 
Christendom. 

Paragraphs : — 

80. Fate of Lotharingia : Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, 30-35 ; for its 

subsequent history, see map 8 and paragraphs 134, 187, 212, 
250, 275. 

81. East Francia : Emerton, Ch. 3 ; Henderson, I., 38-46. 

82. West Francia : Kitchin, I., 163-182 ; Adams, Growth of the French 

Nation, Ch. 5. See below for genealogy of later Carolingians. 

83. Alfred : Gardiner, 60-62 ; Hughes, Alfred the Great; Colby, No. 8 ; 

selections from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Lee, No. 23 ; Kendall, 
No. 8 ; Anglo-Saxon Laws, Kendall, No. 6 ; Lee, Ch. 6. 

84. Danes in England : Green, 44-61 ; Church, 199-214 ; Colby, No. 9. 

85. The Normans in France: Kitchin, I., 171-179 ; in Italy, Emerton, 

223-229. 

86. The Hungarians: Emerton, 106-109, 130-133. 

87-98. Consequences, The Feudal System: The distresses of the 
age, see Robinson, Ch. 8 ; best general description in Seignobos, see 



98 



BEGINNINGS OF FEUDAL EUROPE 



also Emerton, Ch. 4 ; Adams, Civilization, Ch. 9; the selections 
from European writers in Munro and Sellery, 159-211 ; Cheyney, 
Ch. 2 ; for illustrations of each phase of feudal society including 
the edicts of Kiersy and Mersen, see Tr. and lip. Vol. IV., No. 3 ; 
Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 180-230 ; Robinson, Ch. 9 and No. 157 ; 
Jones, No. 5. 

Additional Reading : Seehohm, English Village Communities, with 
plans of the mediaeval manor. 

Principal Descendants of Charlemagne 

Charlemagne, t S14 
Louis, 814-840 



Lothair 
E. 840-855 



Ludwig (K. of East 
Francia) S43-S76 

Charles {The Fat) 
E. 881-8S8 



Charles II. {The Bald) 

K. S40-8T7 ; E. 875-S77 

Louis II. {The Stammerer) 
K. 877-879 

I 



Louis III 

879-S82 



Charles III. {The Simple) 

K. S9S-929 

I 

Louis IV. {Outre- Mer) 

K. 930-954 

I 
Lothair, 954-986 

I 



Louis V. 
9S6-9S7 



Charles, duke 
of Lorraine 



Hugh Capet's Family 



Eobert {The Strong), + 867 



Eudes, 
K. 888-8 



Hugh Capet 

Duke of France 

K. in 987 



Robert, duke of 

France, t 923 
(K. a few months) 



Hugh {The Great), t 956 
Duke of France 

L_. 



Emma, m. Rudolf 
.K. 923-936 



Eudes-Henry 
Duke of Burgundy 



E.=Emperor ; K.=King of West Francia or France. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

99. From 936 to 1154. — The years that saw the breaking 
down of the old system of government saw also the extension 
of the boundaries of Christendom, until almost all that was to 
become the new Europe was brought within its limits. This 
was accomplished either by direct missionary work or by the 
increasing intercourse between the countries of the north and 
east with the older lands of the south. The triumph of feu- 
dalism was not lasting. It had hardly become the recognized 
system of western society before it was attacked from above 
by the kings and mined from below by the people. The 
Church also felt the danger when its- bishops and abbots 
became hardly distinguishable from ordinary nobles, and at- 
tempted to find a remedy in withdrawing the ecclesiastics 
almost wholly from the control of princes and in subjecting 
them to the rule of the pope. Europe gained a new sense 
of unity in the crusades, which were prompted by religious 
enthusiasm and the love of adventure, and which checked for 
two or three centuries the Moslem attack on Europe, and 
particularly on Constantinople. 

100. The Border-lands. — The conquests of Charlemagne on 
the north and east had brought the Christian Frank into rude 
contact with the pagan Slav. There were two ways in which 
this half-barbarous Christendom might be extended, — one by 
driving back the Slav and organizing the captured lands, an- 
other by converting the Slav and allowing his tribes to exist 
as members of the growing family of Christian peoples. The 
border-lands or marks which under Charlemagne had been 

99 



100 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

the advance guard of Frankish civilization were reorganized 
by Otto L, by his son, and his grandson The Elbe ceased to 
be the northern frontier. Beyond it lay parts of three great 
marks, one of which, the Northmark, was, as the mark of 
Brandenburg, to become the nucleus of the later Prussian 
kingdom. The Slavs were steadily pushed back toward the 
Oder. Their lands were partially resettled by German colo- 
nists, and new bishoprics were founded under the control of 
the archbishopric of Magdeburg. Still farther east on the 
Danube the old Eastmark was strengthened. This was to 
grow into Austria. A solid bulwark of marks thus stretched 
from northeastern Italy to the Danish lands. 

101. Conversion of the Slavs. — It was only through Chris- 
tianity that the Slavs could hope to strengthen themselves 
against their western foes, for with Christianity would come 
some of those traditions of orderly government which were 
indispensable in the struggle. Moreover, if the Slavs were con- 
verted, one motive for the interminable wars would be gone. 
They vaguely realized this, but their hearts were not touched 
by the rough missionary monks and priests who followed the 
German hosts and who seemed more eager to gain lands and 
revenues than to preach the gospel. One of the Moravian 
chiefs who had succeeded in gathering nearly all the western 
Slavs under his rule sent to the emperor at Constantinople in 
862 for missionaries of another sort. In response came Cyril 
and Methodius, two brothers, natives of Thessalonica. They 
were so successful that ever since they have been regarded as 
apostles to the Slavs, just as Boniface was the apostle to the 
Germans. To them the Slavs owed their alphabet and the 
beginnings of their literature. Bohemia also received its 
lessons in Christianity from Methodius. The Moravian empire 
soon collapsed, but the influence of the two missionaries was 
strengthened even in its ruin, for many of their Slavic converts 
fled eastward into Bulgaria and assisted in converting this 
mixed people to Christianity. The strongest barrier against 
German advance was the Poles, so named because they dwelt 



ENGLAND'S DANISH KINGS 101 

on great plains. Their power of resistance was due largely to 
the strong organization which the Church gave them. The 
popes also supported them when they were exposed to German 
encroachments, so that, centuries afterward, when the Ger- 
mans threw off papal control, they found few imitators in 
Poland. In this earlier missionary movement Greek and 
Latin Christians had worked together. Their rivalry first 
appeared in the case of Bulgaria, and Prince Boris long hesi- 
tated between the Greek and the Roman forms of worship, 
but in 870 he chose the Greek. The Russian Slavs received 
Christianity directly from Constantinople toward the year 1000. 
Their princes were Northmen from the Scandinavian peninsula, 
but about the time when Prince Vladimir decided to be bap- 
tized he determined to surround himself with Slavs. The new 
religion became a bond between prince and people. Since it 
was brought from Constantinople, where more of the ancient 
civilization lingered than in the West, the civilization of Russia 
in the eleventh century was more advanced than that of western 
Europe. 

102. The Hungarians. — During this period the Magyars, 
or Hungarians, accepted Christianity. Their great prince, 
Stephen, was so devoted to the Church that the pope in the 
year 1000 sent him a royal crown. Since he was the real 
founder of the Hungarian monarchy, the crown of Hungary has 
ever been called the crown of St. Stephen. 

103. The Northmen. — The frontier of Christianity was 
pushed northward among the Danes and their wilder kindred 
in the Scandinavian peninsula. In Denmark the work was 
completed during the reign of Cnut, who was also king of 
England. He brought over many English priests to help him, 
and tried to make of Denmark a new England. The conver- 
sion of the Northmen and their organization into Christian 
kingdoms put an end to their piratical raids. 

104. England's Danish Kings. — Cnut had owed his English 
crown to a new series of Danish invasions. At first the Danes 
were bought off with the proceeds of a tax called the Danegeld. 



102 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

It was no Alfred who had suggested such a scheme, but iEthel- 
red, nicknamed the Rede-less, or unadvised, who became king 
in 978. Afterward he sought to terrify the invaders by order- 
ing a massacre of all their kindred who had recently settled 
in the country. Svend, Cnut's father, had avenged this mas- 
sacre and had made himself king. 

105. The English Earls. — During Cnut's reign the great 
lords, or earldermen, were first called earls, a Danish title. 
They ruled territories often as large as several counties. 
In 1042 when Cnut and his sons were dead and the English 
chose as king a son of iEthelred, the weak Edward the Con- 
fessor, who had been living in Normandy, the real power be- 
longed to the earls, and chiefly to Earl Godwine. Godwine's 
lands included the older kingdom of Wessex, together with 
Sussex and Kent. To counteract his influence, King Edward 
looked to his Norman friends, one of whom he made archbishop 
of Canterbury. Another was William, duke of Normandy, 
who paid him a visit and who afterward asserted that Edward 
promised him the crown of England. Although the crown 
was not Edward's to give, for the lords, bishops, abbots, and 
other notable men assembled in the council, or Witenagemot, 
had the right to choose the kings, William went back to 
Normandy cherishing this promise as a real claim to the 
throne. Soon afterward Godwine drove away the Norman 
archbishop of Canterbury. When he died his earldom went 
to his son Harold. 

106. The Duke of Normandy. — Duke William had already 
shown that he knew how to rule men. As a child he had been 
left in the midst of jealous barons by his father, who in 1035 
went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He had finally subdued 
his enemies and had made Normandy more orderly than any 
other region, at least within the limits of France. At first he 
had been helped by the 'Capetian kings, for his ancestors had 
faithfully served the Capetians as their lords even before Hugh 
became king. But it was hard for a king at Paris to allow the 
lower course of the Seine to be held by so powerful a vassal. 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST 



103 



Twice William had defeated the king before he seized a crown 
which made him an even more dangerous rival. 

107. The Norman Conquest. — In 1066 Edward the Con- 
fessor died, and the Witenagemot chose Harold king. William 
determined to conquer the crown, which he declared rightfully 



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JBajflr 


i ! i I 




'hS 


'T&ii' iiiIIPTPi" 


• **^fe '?~> Jfe ^ Jfamik 









Castle of Falaise. 

The birthplace, in 1027, of William the Conqueror, son of 
Duke Robert the Devil and of Arlette a tanner's daughter. 

belonged to him. From every side came warriors eager for a 
share in the spoil. He received a consecrated banner from the 
pope, who had been offended by the English treatment of the 
Norman archbishop, and who thought that such a conquest 
would make England more obedient to the papacy. Harold could 
get no aid from the jealous earls. His own brother took the 
opportunity to invade England with an army of Norwegians. 



104 THE NEW EUROPE. ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

Victorious over this enemy, he hastened southward to meet 
William, who had already landed. The decisive battle was 
fought at Senlac near Hastings. Harold was killed and his 
army scattered. The English had no choice save submission 
to William, the " Conqueror." 

108. William as King. — Although William was cruel to 
all who resisted him, his triumph was an advantage to England, 
henceforward more closely united to the Continent, which was 
already stirred by a new religious, intellectual, and artistic life. 
Several of England's most imposing cathedrals, built by Nor- 
man architects, still stand as witnesses to this influence. 
William also gave the country a stronger government. 
In Normandy there had been few great lords to thwart his 
efforts and all men had held their fiefs directly of him. He 
applied the same system in England, breaking up the great 
earldoms and scattering the lands of the richer earls, so that 
they could not easily bring together their followers to dispute 
his authority. He held them in check also by increasing the 
power of the sheriffs. He insisted that all landowners 
swear fealty to him. Who they were he knew, for he had 
caused an exact statement of all property to be set down in 
Domesday Book, so named, perhaps, because its records could 
no more be questioned than " dooms " of the Judgment Day. 
In his effort to check unruly nobles he was aided by the old 
English county courts, where lords, bishops, abbots, and dele- 
gates from the towns met to settle cases too important to be 
decided by the manorial or town courts. Here was administered 
by the freemen themselves the old English law, and not the 
will of some great noble. Such meetings foreshadowed a day 
when the same classes of men would unite to wrest from 
W T illiam's successors stronger safeguards for their laws and 
their "liberties. 

109. The Holy Roman Empire. — None of the German kings 
before Otto had ventured to march into Italy, and, like another 
Charlemagne, win the imperial crown. The papacy had not 
gained by the withdrawal of such a protector, troublesome 



THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 105 

though he occasionally was, for without him it might be 
degraded into a local bishopric fought over by the rude lords 
of Rome or the neighboring towns. It was at the call of the 
pope for protection that Otto came in 962. He was crowned 

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car ib«-»-(«T M »'7mtfltn - Wi. < ^tt.rtftji'.7«ii. Ac £a. 

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^ierae E- tnak# <<p2>- "ferrw>^>.ui.biiyunJt<J. 

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<jAurc.<Jt- l£judUc. ^utf fe^Vti. lib. 

Domesday Book. 

Reduced facsimile of entries, the record of a survey 
of the population and resources of England in 1086. 

emperor, and was the first of a long line of German kings to 
bear this title. The Empire was called the Holy Roman or 
German-Roman Empire. Some of its earlier days were glori- 
ous ; but it lingered so long after its power was lost that before 
Napoleon gave it the coup de grdce in 1806, it had, as a witty 
writer remarked, ceased to be Holy, or Roman, or an Empire 
Nearly a century after Otto's coronation, Henry III., the Fran- 



PC0C.O& 



106 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

conian, again restored the papacy. Finding that three un- 
worthy men each claimed to be pope, he summoned the synod 
of Sutri in 1046, and at this they were deposed and a German 
bishop chosen pope. The two following popes were also 
selected by the emperor. Never again was the imperial power 
to be so great or so useful at Eome. 

110. Church and State. — There were churchmen who be- 
lieved that real betterment must come from within the Church 
rather than from emperors or kings. The greatest enemy was 
the anarchy which had resulted in the feudal system and which 
exposed rich abbeys and influential bishoprics to the schemes 
of covetous and unscrupulous men. When ordinary fiefs be- 
came hereditary, the shortest road to power lay through Church 
positions. To obtain these, all that might be necessary was the 
favor of a king or of some great noble. Occasionally such sup- 
port might be purchased for a sum of money, or the promise 
of a part of the annual revenues. But since it was believed 
that God granted to the bishops a special gift of the Holy 
Spirit, those who purchased bishoprics seemed hardly better 
than Simon Magus, and so their offence was called simony. 
Zealous churchmen thought that if the choice of abbots and 
bishops was kept wholly in the hands of the clergy, this par- 
ticular sin would be prevented. To such a safeguard the kings 
objected that bishops and abbots were also lords, that they not 
only managed the religious affairs of monasteries or dioceses, 
but also ruled over extensive lands, within which they could 
collect taxes, raise troops, and administer justice ; in other 
words, that they were royal officers in whose selection the 
monarchy had a deep interest. For this reason they were 
obliged to do homage and become vassals like other lords. 
Even the payment of money when they were put in possession 
of their temporalities, as the rights of rule were called, did not 
seem unreasonable from the king's point of view, since ordi- 
nary lords were obliged to pay such sums under the name of 
reliefs. Churchmen were also scandalized because the kings 
in granting to bishops the temporalities chose as symbols the 



GBEGORY VII. 107 

staff or shepherd's crook, and the ring, which typified the mar- 
riage of Christ and the Church. What, said they, had men of 
blood to do with these holy things ? 

111. Celibacy of the Clergy. — Another custom which 
seemed to threaten the welfare of the Church was the marriage 
of the clergy. This was contrary to Church laws, but had 
become prevalent throughout the West. There was danger 
that the priesthood might become an hereditary caste, and that 
bishoprics and abbeys might pass permanently to certain 
families. Although this danger was still remote, it greatly 
troubled men who saw in the celibacy of the clergy a require- 
ment of the Christian law. 

112. The Cluny Reformers. — The leaders in the movement 
to enforce the celibacy of the clergy, to check simony, and to 
free the Church from the control of the kings were under the 
influence of the monastery of Cluny. From its walls monks 
went out to reform other Benedictine monasteries, or to fill 
bishoprics and archbishoprics. It was a Cluny monk, Hilde- 
brand, who is said to have persuaded Bishop Bruno, sent by 
Henry III. to Rome as pope in 1048, not to assume the name 
of pope until he had been chosen at Rome. Once pope, as 
Leo IX., and perhaps moved by Hildebrand, he vigorously 
undertook the work of rooting simony out of the Church. He 
held synods in France, Germany, and Italy, at which bishops 
were summoned to declare whether they had paid this guilty 
money : those who refused were excommunicated, those who 
confessed were punished. A few years after his death the 
same party, in 1059, in order to diminish the emperor's influ- 
ence over the choice of the popes, transferred the right of 
choice to a body of clergy who were either bishops of sees 
near Rome or held offices in the churches of Rome itself. 
This body was called the College of Cardinals. 

113. Gregory VII. — Sooner or later a struggle was inevita- 
ble between this party and the emperor, and even the kings of 
France and England. It began in 1073, when Hildebrand was 
chosen pope as Gregory VII. Gregory was determined not 



108 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

only to put a stop to simony and to enforce celibacy, but also 
to forbid the investiture of bishops by princes with the sym- 
bols of the ring and the staff. Gregory's ambitions went even 
farther, for he held that the pope as vicar of Christ was the 
spiritual judge of the world, set over it to pluck up and to de- 
stroy, to build and to plant. If he was to wield such power, it 
must be through his control over the bishops, and he could not 
control them if they held of ordinary princes in the strict 
feudal sense. Accordingly Gregory issued a decree forbidding 
investiture by laymen. His antagonist in this conflict was 
well chosen. It was not William the Conqueror, it was not 
even the more feeble Philip of France ; but it was Henry IV. 
of Germany, young, headstrong, involved in a bitter quarrel 
with the Saxons, and whose control in Italy endangered the 
independence of the Roman see itself. 

114. Investiture Struggle. — Henry paid no attention to the 
papal decree, and continued to invest German and Italian 
abbots and bishops. In this case his offence was not that of 
accepting money, but simply of conferring the investiture. 
The pope threatened him with excommunication. Henry re- 
taliated by summoning a German council at which the bishops 
renounced their allegiance to the pope and charged him with 
being himself guilty of simony and with ruining the Church 
by his violence. Henry had too many enemies in Germany to 
carry things with such a high hand. When the pope excom- 
municated him, every rebellious heart found an excuse for no 
longer recognizing him as king. Pious churchmen also believed 
that so long as he lay under the ban of excommunication no 
Christian could hold intercourse with him. Henry found 
power slipping away so hopelessly that the only chance of 
recovering it lay through obtaining at least formal pardon from 
the pope. Although it was winter he crossed the Alps, with 
only a few attendants, to meet Gregory in Italy, for the pope 
had announced his intention to hold a council in Germany, and 
Henry wished to spare himself the ignominy of a public 
humiliation in his own kingdom. In January, 1077, just a 



THE MOSLEM PERIL 109 

year from the time when he and his bishops had attacked the 
pope, he was standing in the courtyard at Canossa, clad in 
the penitent's garb, begging absolution. For three days the 
pope would not listen. Even his own supporters cried out 
against his cruelty. Once the ban of excommunication was 
removed, Henry returned to Germany and crushed his enemies. 
When Gregory again tried to interfere, Henry did not hesitate 
to set up a rival pope and to drive Gregory from Rome. 
Gregory found refuge among the Norman princes who were 
building up a kingdom in southern Italy and Sicily, on the 
ruins of the Greek and Lombard lands. He died in 1085, and 
his last words were, " I have loved righteousness and hated 
iniquity, therefore I die in exile." Soon the papacy was to 
gain a new point of vantage in this struggle, for it stood forth 
as the real leader of Christendom in the conflict with the 
Mohammedans. 

115. The Moslem Peril. — The early attacks of the Moham- 
medans upon Constantinople had failed, and in the eleventh 
century the Byzantine Empire controlled all Asia Minor as 
well as its European territories. Even before Charlemagne's 
day the Mohammedan empire or caliphate had begun to fall 
to pieces. A separate caliphate was formed in Spain, with its 
capital at Cordova. Sometime later another caliphate was 
established in Egypt at Cairo. The caliphs of Bagdad finally 
succumbed to Turkish chieftains of the Seljuk family. In 
Spain the caliphate of Cordova was broken into petty Moham- 
medan states, so that for a time the Christians from the north 
pushed their frontiers farther and farther south, and enlarged 
the little kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. Sud- 
denly, toward the close of the eleventh century, the scene 
changed. The Turks overran Asia Minor and established there 
the sultanate of Rum. They captured Antioch, which for a 
century had been a Greek stronghold. Jerusalem, hitherto 
under the mild rule of the Egyptian caliphs, had also come into 
their hands. The pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, who had 
been well treated by the Egyptians, were plundered and perse- 



110 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULEBS AND ITS FOES 







THE CALL FOR A CBUSADE 



111 



cuted by the Seljuks. The Emperor Alexius sent from Con- 
stantinople urgent appeals to the pope for aid. But the danger 
was still nearer. Bands of fanatical Mohammedans from 
Africa poured into Spain and, in 1087, defeated the Castilians 
at Zalacca. The southern Frenchmen who had once suffered 
from Mohammedan raids were alarmed. So was the pope, for 
ever since the Saracens 
had occupied Sicily in 
the ninth century Italy 
had been harried by their 
bands and some of its 
towns occupied. It was 
clearly necessary to act if 
the new assault of Asia 
was to be beaten back. 

116. The Call for a 
Crusade. — The warriors 
of western Europe were 
ready for some grand en- 
terprise. The gradual 
settling down of society 
into the framework of the 
feudal system constantly 
lessened opportunities for 
adventure, with the glory 
of warfare and the hope of 
plunder. The merchants 
of southern France and 
Italy were eager to turn 
their ships again toward 

the East. The religious revival which had suggested the 
Cluny reforms also made men ready to sacrifice their lives in 
the attempt to wrest from the Saracens the Sepulchre of the 
Lord. It was natural that the pope should put himself at the 
head of such a movement. Pope Urban II. had been even less 
inclined than Gregory to make any compromise in the matter 




Church of the Holy Sepulchre. 

Situated on the traditional site of Our 
Lord's tomb. A church was erected 
here by Constantine in 336. This is the 
fourth structure and was begun in 1810. 



112 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

of simony and lay investiture. He had an open quarrel not 
only with Henry IV. of Germany, but with Philip I. of France 
and William Rufus of England. Although these contests were 
by no means settled in his favor, he boldly undertook the new 
and still more difficult enterprise. He went to France, and in 
burning words at the council of Clermont aroused the multi- 
tude to irresistible enthusiasm. Thousands of men cried out, 
" God wills it, God wills it," and, affixing a little cloth cross 
upon their shoulders, pledged themselves to enlist for the 
crusade. A monkish preacher, Peter the Hermit, was so suc- 
cessful as he went through the country in spreading this enthu- 
siasm that after generations took him, rather than Pope Urban, 
for the hero of the crusade. 

117. The Crusaders Start. — The council of Clermont was 
held in November, 1095, and the pope named August 15, 1096, 
as the time for the departure of the armies. In order to per- 
suade men to take the cross, he had publicly promised those 
who set out in penitence remission of all their sins, and those 
who perished an immediate entrance into paradise. Their 
families and their property were put under the special protec- 
tion of the Church. It is not strange that with motives of 
such different kinds acting upon them soldiers gathered for the 
holy war. Multitudes of men, women, and children, whom the 
leaders did not wish, were impatient to have a share in these 
benefits. Before the day for the start came, great bands set 
out under Peter the Hermit and a knight named Walter the 
Penniless. Most of them perished in Hungary and Bulgaria, 
and the others were cut to pieces by the Turks in Asia Minor. 
Finally the four regularly organized armies started by different 
routes to meet at Constantinople at the end of the year. The 
most notable leaders were Godfrey of Bouillon and Bohemond 
of Tarentum. 

118. In Syria and at Jerusalem. — When the Emperor Alex- 
ius saw the hosts gathering under his walls he was alarmed, 
though he had sent messengers into the West asking for such 
assistance. His chief fear was that they would recover his 



THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM 113 

lost lands only to hold them themselves. He finally persuaded 
the leaders to swear homage to him and transported them 
across to Asia Minor. The march toward Antioch over the 
burning plains was deadly to thousands of the army. Only 
through the treachery of an Armenian in the service of the 
Turks were the crusaders able, in June, 1098, to take Antioch. 
Dazzled by the spoils of the city, they became as ruthless pilla- 
gers and as cruel enemies as the rudest barbarians. They also 
fell to quarrelling among themselves over the conquered ter- 
ritory. Already Godfrey's brother had made his way to 
Edessa to build up a principality. Bohemond claimed Antioch 
as his share. The leaders began to abandon all idea of at- 
tempting the capture of Jerusalem, but their followers insisted 
that all their toils and sufferings should not be in vain. When 
the crusaders arrived before the Holy City, in July, 1099, they 
were reduced to an army of thirty or forty thousand half- 
starved men. Their only chance was a bold assault. This 
succeeded. Once in the city they massacred their enemies, 
— men, women, and children. They wrote to the pope, "If 
you desire to know what was done with the enemy who 
were found there, know that in Solomon's porch and in his 
temple our men rode in the blood of the Saracens up to the 
knees of their horses." 

119. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099-1244. — This newly 
conquered territory was organized into a kingdom, and the 
crown was offered to Godfrey. He refused the title but ac- 
cepted the task, calling himself the Protector of the Holy 
Sepulchre. This was the beginning of the Latin kingdom of 
Jerusalem, which lasted nearly two hundred years. When 
Godfrey died, his brother Baldwin came from Edessa and did 
not hesitate to wear the crown. He and the other princes 
speedily took on the manners, and some of them even adopted 
the language, of the East. The crusade, judged by its own 
ideals, had been a failure, but it did delay the advance of the 
Turk and gave to the eastern Empire a new lease of life. It 
also must have encouraged the Spaniards in their age-long 



114 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

crusade against the Moors, as the western Mohammedans were 
called. The Italian merchants took advantage of the conquest 
to organize a nourishing trade in the eastern Mediterranean. 

120. The Quarrel between Church and State Compromised. 
— Not long after the end of this first crusade the conflict 
between the papacy and the kings was settled by a little yield- 
ing on each side. There were several bishops in France, es- 
pecially Ive of Chartres, who argued that it was possible to 
distinguish between the goods or temporalities that the clergy 
held as royal vassals and their religious authority. The form 
of the investiture might be changed, although kings must insist 
that the clergy should recognize their obligations when they 
received lands and power. William the Conqueror's wise son 
Henry I. was the first monarch to reach such an agreement with 
the Church. He had long been in controversy over the matter 
with Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, and one of the most 
saintly and learned men of the time. Finally it was agreed 
that the clergy should elect their bishops and abbots freely, 
but that they must do it in the king's court, and that when 
elected these churchmen should do homage for their temporali- 
ties. This was in 1106. Somewhere about the same time the 
king of France ceased to invest the churchmen, apparently 
believing that he could care for the royal interests sufficiently 
without receiving from them formal homage. Fifteen years 
later, in 1122, Henry V. of Germany, the son of Henry IV., 
made a compromise, called the Concordat of Worms, which was 
like the English settlement. The choices were to be made in 
his presence, and he was to invest with a touch of the sceptre, 
instead of with the ring and the staff. When put in posses- 
sion of their lands the churchmen were to do homage as vas- 
sals. This ended the first conflict between the papacy and the 
German-Roman Empire, but their struggle for supremacy, 
especially as rivals in Italy, was yet to be settled. 

121. The King of France. — Shortly after the duke of Nor- 
mandy had become king of England the Capetian kings of 
France began their slow advance toward real monarchical 



THE KING OF FBANCE 115 

power. Hugh Capet had pushed aside the last heir of Charle- 
magne, because, as duke of France, he was richer in lands than 
any of the later rulers of the Carolingian house, and because 
influential churchmen supported him. In the struggle to gain 
adherents and to prepare the way for his triumph, he had lav- 
ished privileges and fiefs upon his followers, so that after he 
became king he was weaker than he had been as duke. His 
son, his grandson, and his great-grandson did scarcely anything 
to recover more effective power. They were hardly to be dis- 
tinguished from other great nobles save in their title and 
in the rights which they possessed over many bishoprics and 
abbeys outside their domain. This domain was a narrow strip 
of territory extending from a little north of Paris to some 
miles south of Orleans. East of the domain lay the posses- 
sions of the count of Champagne, and west those of the count 
of Blois and of the duke of Normandy. The king could raise 
no taxes, he had no regular army, he could not make laws. 
His income, like that of other lords, came chiefly from the 
produce of his estates. When bishoprics or abbeys fell vacant 
he could administer the property and collect the revenues until 
the vacancy was filled. Even this right, which belonged to 
him as king, could not be used in the case of bishoprics in 
Normandy. In spite of his weak position the Church recog- 
nized him as the anointed of the Lord. Since churchmen 
worked instinctively for peace and order, they supported the 
king against the turbulent vassals. The people also vaguely 
felt that the king might become a bulwark against oppression, 
and occasionally whole parishes joined the king's forces in 
destroying the stronghold of 'some robber baron. One thing 
saved the early Capetians from losing the little they had. 
Each king was able several years before his death to associate 
his son with him in the government. Accordingly no bargains 
had to be made with the nobles to obtain the crown, and heredi- 
tary succession rather than election became the rule. The 
first important addition to the king's domain was made by 
Philip L, Hugh's great-grandson, who purchased the viscounty 



116 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

of Bourges, south of the Loire. His son, Louis VI., was wise 
enough to see that he must first beat down the troublesome 
barons of the domain in order to find standing-ground from 
which to extend the royal influence among the greater feudal 
vassals. All his life, until he had grown too stout to ride, he 
was constantly in the saddle, fighting the petty barons whose 
donjons lay almost at the gates of Paris. His efforts were 
supported by the Abbot Suger of St. Denis, who had great in- 
fluence over the Church. Just before Louis died in 1137 he 
arranged a marriage between his son, Louis VII., and Eleanor, 
the heiress of Aquitaine. Had this marriage been successful, 
the power of the French king would have been extended over 
all the region between the Loire and the Pyrenees. 

122. Henry, Count of Anjou. — Unfortunately for France, 
the marriage of Louis VII. and Eleanor was a failure, and 
Louis had it annulled by the Church upon the ground that he 
and Eleanor were too near of kin. So rich a prize was eagerly 
coveted by a man who was more far-sighted. It happened that 
William the Conqueror's son, Henry, lost his son by shipwreck 
before his own death, and attempted to bind his barons to sup- 
port his daughter Matilda as queen. He then married Matilda 
to the count of Anjou, whose lands lay on both sides of the 
lower Loire. A grandson of William, Stephen of Blois, upset 
this arrangement and made himself king, but the struggle of 
the two parties reduced England almost to anarchy. By and 
by Matilda's son Henry grew old enough to fight his mother's 
battles, and compelled Stephen to agree that he should be the 
next king. Just before this he had married the repudiated 
duchess of Aquitaine and had added that duchy to his other 
possessions, Normandy and Anjou. He now held more French 
land than his lord, the king of France. When he became king 
of England, in 1154, the Capetian monarch at Paris seemed 
insignificant in comparison. But there was at least one force 
on the side of the Capetian kings which had not been taken 
account of, and that was geography. It was the English Chan- 
nel which kept the English-Norm an- Angevin empire from ever 
becoming a really united country. 



SUMMARY 117 



SUMMARY 



I. Advance Of Christendom. — 1. Conquest of Slavs: (a) by force, 
organization of conquered lands; (6) by missionaries, Cyril and 
Methodius ; (c) cases of Russia and of Bulgaria. 2. Hungary. 
3. Conversion of Danes and Northmen, partly through union of 
England and Denmark. 
II. Empire and Church. — 1. Holy Roman Empire: (a) origin; 
(6) relation to papacy under Otto I. and Henry III. ; (c) the 
choice of bishops and abbots, conflict of interests between Church 
and Empire. 2. Reform in Church : (a) question of celibacy ; 
(b) reformers under Hildebrand strengthen the papacy. 3. Greg- 
ory VII. and Henry IV.: (a) Gregory's theory of his power; 
(b) his decrees ; (c) his antagonist ; (d) the conflict, Canossa ; 
(e) compromise in England, France, and Germany. 

III. Christian and Moslem. — 1. The Moslem peril : (a) from Turks ; 

(&) in Spain. 2. The First Crusade : (a) call ; (6) motives of 
crusaders ; (c) the expedition ; (d) the results, kingdom of 
Jerusalem. 

IV. England and France. — 1. The Capetians : («) nature of their 

power ; (&) attitude of Church and people ; (c) policy of Louis VI. 
2. Norman Conquest : («) succession to English crown since the 
Danish invasions recommenced ; (6) William of Normandy and 
his claim to English throne ; (c) the Conquest and its results ; 
(d) Eleanor of Aquitaine, Louis VII., and Henry II. 



IMPORTANT DATES 

862. Beginning of conversion of Slavs. 

962. Restoration by Otto of the Empire. 

987. Hugh Capet, king of France. 

1000. Conversion of Hungarians and Russians. 

1059. Creation of College of Cardinals. 

1066. Norman Conquest. 

1077. Canossa. 

1095. First Crusade. 

1099. Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

1122. Concordat of Worms. 

1154. Accession of Henry II., count of Anjou and duke of Normandy, to 
throne of England. 



118 THE NEW EUROPE, ITS RULERS AND ITS FOES 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading: Freeman, Short History of the Norman Conquest; 
Tout, Empire and Papacy ; Stephens, Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) ; 
Macy, The English Co?istitution ; Archer and Kingsford, The 
Crusades. 

Paragraphs : — 

100. The Marks : Emerton, 146-148. 

101. Conversion of the Slavs: Schaff, History of the Christian 

Church, IV., 124-142 ; Rambaud, I., Ch. 5. 

102. The Hungarians : Schaff, 135-138. 

103-104. Danish England: Gardiner, 81-86; Kendall, Nos. 11, 12; 
Colby, No. 10. 

106-108. Norman Conquest : Freeman ; battle of Hastings or Senlac, 
Ramsay, II., 24-36; from contemporaries, Kendall, Nos. 13-16; 
Colby, Nos. 12, 13, 15, 16 ; Robinson, Nos. 97, 98 ; Lee, Nos. 44- 
53 ; documents illustrating Domesday survey, Adams and 
Stephens, Nos. 2-4 ; character of English feudalism under William, 
Macy, Ch. 10. 

109-114, 120. Empire and Papacy : Bryce, Ch. 10 ; Adams, Civiliza- 
tion, Ch. 10 ; Emerton, Ch. 7 ; Alzog, II., 481-510 ; documents, 
letters, contemporary accounts illustrating each phase, Henderson, 
Documents, 351-409; Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 60-80; Robinson, 
Chs. 12, 13 ; case of William the Conqueror, in Lee, Nos. 50-51 ; 
Colby, No. 14. For 110 see 38, 88, 90. For 111 see 40. 

115. The Moslem Peril : condition in Spain, Burke, I., 201-204 ; ad- 

vance of Seljuks, Oman, Byzantine Empire, Ch. 20 ; Mediceval 
Pilgrims, Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages, 
338-403 ; Byzantine Civilization, Munro and Sellery, 212-223. 

116. Call for a Crusade: Kitchin, I., 216-224; Emerton, 358-364; 

longer account in Archer and Kingsford ; documents, in Tr. and 
Rp., I., No. 2 ; Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 278-281 ; Robinson, Nos. 
123, 124 ; Colby, No. 17. 

117. The March : Emerton, 364-365 ; Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 282, 283. 

118. 119. In Syria and Jerusalem : Emerton, 365-374 ; letters of the 

crusaders, etc., Tr. and Rp., I., No. 4 ; Robinson, Nos. 126-127. 

120. The Investiture Question, settlements : in England, Gardiner, 

125-126 ; in Germany, Henderson, Documents, 408-409 ; Thatcher- 
McNeal, Nos. 83-86 ; Emerton, 269. 

121. The Early Capetians : Kitchin, I., 188-214 ; from Suger's Life of 

Louis VI., Robinson, No. 93, or Jones, No. 5. 

122. The Heirs of the Conqueror : wreck of the " White Ship," 

Colby, No. 20. 



REVIEW 119 



The Family of William (the Conqueror) 

William I., 1066-10S7 
! __ 

I i i 1 

Robert "William II. Henry I. Adela = Stephen 

Duke of Normandy 1087-1100 1100-1135 ofBlois 

, I , I 

| Stephen 

William Matilda = Geof- 1135-1154 

(Lost at sea) frey Plantagenet 

Henry II., 1154-1189 

For Review, Chs. 5-7 : attempt to restore imperial authority, collapse 
of Charlemagne's empire ; the feudal substitute for a strong State ; 
beginnings of the new national monarchies. Period, 714-1154. 
I. Geography. — 1. Size of Charlemagne's empire compared with : 
(a) the old Roman Empire ; (&) with the Holy Roman Empire of 
Otto. 2. Christendom : («) Christian states and peoples outside 
Charlemagne's empire in 814 ; (6) direction of Christendom's 
advance ; (c) agencies of advance, monarchs like Charlemagne, 
Cnut, Stephen, Vladimir ; missionaries like Boniface, Cyril, and 
Methodius ; (d) Moslem peril in eighth century and in eleventh ; 
(e) Crusades as counter- stroke. 
II. Government. — '1. Struggle to preserve a united State: (a) by put- 
ting down local insurrections ; (6) by just and strong government, 
case of Charlemagne and the missi. 2. Obstacles to success : 
(«) continual wars impoverish the freemen and bring them under 
control of nobles ; (&) grants of immunity ; (c) quarrels between 
descendants of Charlemagne ; (d) raids of Northmen or Danes. 

III. Feudal System, a Substitute for a General Government. — 

1. In time of war. 2. In management of local affairs. 3. In 
method of meeting expenses of government. 

IV. Monarchs begin to restore Royal Authority. — 1. Policy of 

William the Conqueror. 2. Policy of the early Capetians. 
3. Effort of the popes to keep feudalism from controlling the 
Church: (a) by establishing the College of Cardinals; (&) by 
forbidding the investiture of bishops and abbots by kings and 
nobles ; (c) by punishing simony. 
Special Review : Empire and Papacy. — 1. Papacy and the Franks: 
(a) donations of Pepin and Charlemagne ; (b) attitude of the 
popes toward emperors at Constantinople ; (c) toward Charle- 
magne's plan to become king of Lombards. 2. Papacy and the 
German emperors, Otto and Henry III. 3. Gregory VII. and 
Henry IV. 4. The compromises of the early twelfth century 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 

123. The People. — In feudal society little account had been 
taken of the common people in town and country. The coun- 
trymen were rarely united enough to compel either lords or 
kings to listen to their grievances, but the time had come when 
the towns could make themselves heard. Trade had caused 
them to grow, and with this growth had come the power not 
only to gain new privileges for trade, but also to secure for 
themselves a share in the management of their own affairs. 
In France they helped the kings in the struggle against the 
feudal lords. In Italy they allied themselves with the papacy 
to prevent the restoration of imperial authority. In England 
they were later to unite with the barons to restrain headstrong 
kings and to lay the foundations of parliament. With their 
prosperity the stock of money increased, so that kings were 
able to collect taxes, to hire soldiers, and to pay officials, free- 
ing themselves from their dependence on the nobles. In such 
ways the rise of the towns was the doom of feudalism. 

124. The Townsmen. — A few of the towns which existed 
in the eleventh century had once been Roman cities, but most 
of these had been ruined by the invasions or in the long wars 
which followed. Here and there other towns, like St. Denis 
and Minister, were growing up under the protection of mon- 
astery walls. Still others, like Bruges and Ghent, had been 
built beside the castle of some noble family which had the 
reputation of dealing justly with its peasants. The inhabit- 
ants of all, except possibly of a few in the south or in Italy, 

120 



THE TOWNSMEN 



121 



were hardly freer than the peasants. Like them they could 
not leave their property to any save their direct heirs, nor 
could they marry outside the territory of their lord without 
his consent. They were also at first forced to pay to the 
lord whatever he chose to demand. The only limit was the 
necessity of allowing them enough to live on. Since every- 



'■'";? HflHfc ' ■ 


^It^dl Ki 








| 






%m 


■h''. . i 


*^k"^ IW tSSs 





Carcassonne. 

A Gallo-Roman city which survived the invasions and the wars which 
followed. In 1247 it came into the possession of Louis IX. He and his 
son extended its fortifications. This view shows the causeway lead- 
ing up to the gate of the Aude. Another view of the city on page 23. 



thing tends to settle into a fixed custom, the demands of the 
lords were gradually restricted to what they had been wont to 
ask. New demands were called bad customs, and peasants 
and townsmen clamored to be relieved of them. After a while 
some of the customs were written down. Such a writing or 
charter looked very much like an agreement or contract be- 
tween the lord and his people. Hitherto contracts had been 



122 THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 

made only by freemen, that is, lords or vassals, with one an- 
other. But here was a step in advance, which made the 
people a part of the recognized social order and not merely 
despised underlings. Many lords perceived that their own 
prosperity depended upon the welfare of their peasants or 
townspeople. They encouraged agriculture, industry, and 
trade. Merchants travelled from town to town or gathered at 
fairs. Money was used even by peasants in paying their dues 
to the lords. Since the artisans found a sale for their wares 
their numbers increased, and the towns became centres of busy 
life. 

125. Peace. — Churchmen, partly under the leadership of 
the CI uny reformers, attempted to put an end to the petty 
wars of the lords or at least to protect from harm peaceful 
men, peasants and merchants as well as priests and monks. 
These efforts became frequent toward the end of the tenth 
century. To accomplish this they proclaimed a curse upon 
plunderers of churches and upon those who stole " the goods 
of the peasant or of other poor, his sheep or his cow or his 
ass," and upon any one who should strike a deacon or a 
priest. Since the rude robber barons were not thus to be 
frightened into goodness, the churchmen sought to compel 
lords as well as people, gathered in great assemblies, to swear 
not to plunder priests or peasants or merchants. In some 
places every one over fifteen was to promise to march against 
those who broke this agreement, called the Peace of God, 
because it was supposed that God had commanded his clergy 
to ordain it. A little later the churchmen tried to check 
war by what was called the Truce of God. This commanded 
not merely that certain classes of men be undisturbed when 
there was fighting, but that fighting should cease during the 
holier days of the week, from Wednesday night until Monday 
morning. The Truce was also extended to all other holy 
days, and thus was made to cover a good part of the year. 
Monarchs sought to enforce the King's Peace, or the Peace 
of the Land. Although the quarrelsome lords often defied 



INFLUENCE OF ARABIAN CIVILIZATION 123 

both Church and monarch, these efforts showed that wise 
men had become convinced that an end should be put to 
ruinous neighborhood wars and plundering expeditions. 

126. The Crusades and Trade. — Before the crusades only 
a few Mediterranean cities, like Venice and Genoa, had been 
able to maintain a trade with Constantinople and the East. 
To them the conquest of Syria and Palestine offered new op- 
portunities. It also attracted thither merchants from other 
western towns. The crusaders brought back wonderful ac- 
counts of the wealth and luxury of Constantinople and Antioch, 
and of the beautiful fabrics offered for sale in eastern markets. 
Both lords and ladies must have eagerly desired such things 
to make the halls of their rude castles less dreary. Songs 
began to describe " the rich stuffs of Syria, the tapestries of 
Persia, the pearls, the precious stones, the perfumes of Arabia 
and Palestine." 

127. Influence of Arabian Civilization. — Western Europeans 
had earlier come in contact with Arabian civilization in Spain, 
but not until this time did they realize its magnificence. 
Merchants now brought from the East silk, satin, velvet, gauze, 
taffeta, and carpets. Here and there artisans succeeded in 
making similar goods, so that new industries were created. 
For example, the Venetians learned how to make and cut 
glass. Others learned paper-making, the culture of hemp and 
flax and sugar cane. The older industries improved when the 
greater artistic skill of the East put to shame crude workman- 
ship. Fairs multiplied. Those held in the county of Cham- 
pagne, east of Paris, were particularly successful because it 
was easy for merchants to reach them by waterways from 
north, west, or south. In England the greatest fairs were held 
at Stourbridge near Boston. Such fairs lasted about forty 
days and brought together merchants from all the world. The 
new commerce and industry which made them so successful 
helped the towns also. Those along the great trade routes 
were the first to gain wealth and importance. From Italy and 
southern France the new life passed to the Rhine country and 



124 



THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 



northern France. English towns were stirred by it, partly be- 
cause the Norman Conquest had made closer their relations 
with the Continental cities. 




The Alcazar at Seville. 

A palace built by the Moors in the twelfth century. This portion 
shows the beauty and grace of their architecture and sculpture. 

128. Towns and Self-government. — In Italy those Roman 
towns which had survived had lost their ancient form of gov- 
ernment and were ruled by the bishops. The other lords did 
not, like the lords north of the Alps, dwell in isolated castles, 
but had their houses within the town walls. They were all 



THE FRENCH COMMUNES 125 

the more ready to cast in their lot with the townsmen in any 
attempt to throw off the yoke of the bishop. If such an 
attempt succeeded, as it often did after the eleventh century 
opened, the lords and the merchants or artisans chose consuls 
to ride over them, a name recalling the glorious days of the 
Roman Republic. The most important of these cities were 
Milan and Florence. Nearly all were to play a part in the 
new struggle between pope and emperor. In Germany, Henry 
the Fowler (919-936) had insisted that in such a border coun- 
try as Saxony every ninth man should live in a fortified place, 
where, also, markets should be established. His reason had 
been the necessities of defence against the Hungarians and 
other marauders. Trade had still more to do with the growth 
of German cities. Unlike the Italian cities they did not at 
first gain the right to govern themselves, for the emperor was 
strong enough to prevent an attempt to set aside his direct 
rule. How much power any French town was to obtain de- 
pended upon its situation. Within their own domain the kings 
or the dukes of Normandy granted valuable privileges, but not 
the right of self-government, unless a town was exposed to at- 
tack and needed a strong local power. The king encouraged 
such independence in the towns within the domains of his lords, 
for this helped him hold the lords in check, and enabled him 
to acquire some control over these very towns. 

129. The French Communes. — It was in northern France 
and in what is now Belgium that the towns most frequently, 
in the later years of the eleventh and in the early part of the 
twelfth century, gained the right to govern themselves or to 
become "communes." Generally a guild of merchants took 
the lead in organizing the townsmen. The unions of artisans 
were not yet strong enough to do this. In most cases the 
lord granted without a fight the privilege demanded, for the 
merchants were ready to pay well, and his treasury was usu- 
ally in sore need of money. It might happen that he wished 
to go upon a crusade, or it might be necessary for him to pay 
a ransom, or to obtain help in some neighborhood war. Such 



126 THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 

needs gave the townsmen their opportunity. Sometimes they 
did not obtain control of all the town; and the citadel or 
even a whole quarter remained in the lord's power. If he 
would not sell the townsmen what they wanted, they occasion- 
ally seized it by force. It was rare, however, that such a 
bloody quarrel broke out as stained the old Carolingian town 
of Laon. The lord of the town was a righting bishop who 
employed his black slave in torturing those who displeased 
him. Once while he was absent the people bribed his agents 
to permit a commune, and on his return they paid the bishop 
to confirm the grant. They also sought to make a friend of 
the king by paying him. Soon this money was gone and the 
bishop absolved both the king and himself from their promises 
and suppressed the commune. The climax came in 1112. 
When the bishop was warned of the angry mood of the 
townsmen, he roughly retorted that they would not dare 
grunt if his negro John tweaked them by the nose. The 
next day the streets resounded to the cry, " Commune, com- 
mune," and the people burst into the bishop's house. He 
had hidden in a barrel in his cellar, but he was found and 
murdered. The other lords took vengeance on the townsmen. 
The king finally interfered and a few years later reestablished 
the commune under the significant name of Institute of Peace. 
The principal thing which distinguished a commune from a 
town with privileges was that in a commune the men all 
swore to stand by one another, and that together they became 
much like a lord, doing homage to their lord, ruling their 
town, and able as a body to acquire other fiefs. 

130. Towns with Privileges. — Many of the towns* which 
were not allowed to turn themselves into monster lords of this 
kind were quite as well off, for they received charters of privi- 
leges, protecting them against unjust exactions by the agents 
of the king or of their lord, often reducing the sums of money 
and the amount of the fines which they owed, and granting 
them many valuable rights of trade. Sometimes the charter 
granted to one town was so popular that it was given to other 



ITALIAN CITIES 127 

towns. In this way the charter of the little town of Lorris 
was granted to about three hundred others. The Norman- 
English kings gave a charter to Rouen, which they also copied 
for other towns throughout their domains on the Continent. 
Such a charter was often the means by which a lord sought to 
build up a town on his domain. He could open a market, 
promise valuable privileges to those who would come there to 
trade, and offer to protect any who settled in his town against 
all claims which might be made against them. Even serfs 
could secure their freedom by resorting thither, if their lords 
did not claim them within a year and a day. The Villeneuves 
or Newtowns of modern France are a reminder of this mode of 
town making. 

131. Italian Cities. — The cities of northern Italy which 
had been the first to free themselves were also the first to be 
threatened with the loss of this freedom. They owed its suc- 
cessful defence to the struggle between the emperors and the 
papacy, and to the conflict in Germany between rivals for 
the crown. The Concordat of Worms had apparently settled 
the controversy about investiture, but the strife of rival claim- 
ants for the crown continued to break forth from time to time. 
There were also new lords that had to be reckoned with. The 
margrave of the Eastmark, or Austria, was now a duke, and 
the margrave of the old Northmark, or mark of Brandenburg, 
who was steadily driving the Slavs eastward, was strong 
enough to take part in the quarrels of the day. Henry the 
Proud, ancestor of the Guelph rulers of England, held both 
Saxony and Bavaria. After the conflict was settled and the 
Hohenstaufen Conrad was chosen king, interference in Italy 
was rendered impossible by a new crusade, upon which Conrad 
and Louis VII. of France were persuaded to go, in 1147, by. the 
famous monk, Bernard of Clairvaux. The crusade was a dis- 
mal failure, and in 1152 Conrad died and was succeeded by 
his nephew, Frederick the Redbeard, or Barbarossa. Mean- 
time the situation in Italy had become still more threatening 
to monarchical power. The desire for self-government spread 



128 THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 

to Rome itself, and from 1143 for twelve years the Romans 
imagined they were about to act the part their ancestors had 
played hundreds of years before. Their enthusiasm was stirred 
by the preaching of Arnold of Brescia, who found the secret of 
the evils of the day in the worldly power wielded by church- 
men. Most of the time during these years the pope was an 
exile. 

132. Frederick I. and the Cities. — Two things were likely 
to help Frederick when he should find time to go into Italy. 
The first was that big towns like Milan tyrannized over their 
smaller neighbors and were hated accordingly. Another was 
that men, particularly in the great school at Bologna, were be- 
ginning to study more carefully the Roman law which Justin- 
ian had codified and to see how much better organized society 
had been when there was one uniform and reasonable rule for 
all, rather than many local customs or the will of some 
lord. This law also taught that emperors had certain well- 
defined rights, especially the appointment of officials and the 
collection of taxes. When Frederick descended into Italy, he 
readily hearkened to such teachings and formed a commission 
to draw up a list of imperial rights. He helped the pope to 
recover control of Rome in 1155, and turned over to him the 
revolutionist Arnold to be burned as a heretic. The pope, how- 
ever, did not relish Frederick's own pretensions, and a bitter 
quarrel broke out between them two years later over their claims 
to superiority. This led the pope to become a zealous cham- 
pion of city independence outside his own domain. Frederick 
retorted by setting up a rival pope. The cities formed a Lom- 
bard League. Milan, which the emperor had sought to destroy 
in 1162, rose from its ruins. Just at this moment his Guelph 
rivals were making so much trouble for him at home that he 
could not muster soldiers enough to conquer the League. He 
was decisively defeated at Legnano in 1176, and was obliged 
to reconcile himself with the pope and to leave to the cities 
the privileges of self-government which they had actually kept 
in their hands. 



HENRY II. OF ENGLAND 129 

133. Frederick in Germany. — Upon the Guelphs Frederick 
took revenge by depriving them of all their fiefs save those 
a.bout Brunswick, which in the distant future were to grow 
into the electorate of Hanover. This marked the end of 
the older division into duchies. Germany was henceforth 
divided in the manner usual in feudal lands. Frederick per- 
ished soon afterward in the Third Crusade. So glorious did 
he appear to the Germans of his day that for generations the 
common people were wont to say that he and his knights were 
only sleeping in a cave in the mountains, whence they would 
some day return to rule. 

134. France hard-pressed, 1137-1180. — The triumph of the 
Lombard cities and of the pope helped the Capetian Louis at 
Paris, who more than once seemed about to be crushed between 
two such monarchs as Frederick Barbarossa and Henry, the 
Angevin-Norman king of England. Frederick made the con- 
trol of the Empire over the old kingdom of Burgundy more 
than a name, and it seemed as if the influence of the Cape- 
tians could never cross the Meuse, the Saone, or the Rhone. 
The city of Lyons, now the second city of France, was more 
than ever a city of the Empire. On the west Henry pushed 
his territories to within forty miles of Paris. Fortunately for 
France, in the quarrels with the Church, Louis VII. had de- 
fended the cause of that pope who was to triumph. Churchmen, 
therefore, were ready to support him even when he had little 
real power. Moreover, men began to feel that there was a 
France, and now and then this new feeling of loyalty proved 
stronger than the feudal tie or even the vigorous measures of 
a king like Henry II. 

135. Henry II. of England, 1154-1189. —Henry II. is gen- 
erally thought of as a king of England who had territories in 
western France. There is good reason for this, although he 
was far more a Frenchman, of the Norman-Angevin stock, 
than an Englishman. There was no dwelling-place in England 
that he liked so well as some of the castles on the Loire. 
But he was too restless and energetic to remain long in one 



130 THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 

place. He was almost ceaselessly on the march from the 
borders of Scotland to the Pyrenees. His courtiers rarely saw 
him seated except at table or on horseback. His work on the 
Continent is less remembered because it was a vain attempt to 
unite permanently under one rule peoples who wished to be 
independent of one another, — Englishmen, Normans, Angevins, 
and Aquitanians. Such a domain could hold together only 
so long as the king had power enough to compel obedience. 
In England the case was different. Even the Norman nobles 
had learned to think of themselves as Englishmen and to 
speak the English language. If Henry could bring peace to 
the country ruined by the civil war between his mother and 
King Stephen, and could keep the barons from plundering the 
people, he would become a real king of the whole country. 
This he did with characteristic vigor. Next he worked to 
improve the laws and to see that they were justly carried out. 
His grandfather had sent judges into the counties to try all 
cases in which the king's own rights were involved. The 
judges succeeded often in getting into their hands cases that 
really belonged to the manor courts of the lords or to the 
county courts. This was an advantage to the people under 
such a king, because it resulted in the spread of the same 
principles of law to all parts of the country. Henry also in- 
troduced a system by which guilty men were to be discovered 
by the inquiry of groups of men selected in the subdivisions 
of each county, a body something like our grand jury. The 
same plan was used to find out who owned property or what 
the ancient customs of a community were. Other measures 
led toward the formation of the petit jury. The sheriffs who 
had recently been controlled in many counties by the great 
lords became more distinctly the king's representatives. 

136. Henry and the Church. — King Henry's chief trouble 
was with the Church, which by this time in England, as on the 
Continent, had built up a system of courts where were tried 
civil and criminal cases in which clergymen were involved. 
The Church claimed the right to settle all cases growing out of 



HENRY AND THE CHURCH 



131 



marriages, of wills, and of contracts sanctioned by an oath, and 
cases which concerned widows, orphans, crusaders, and stu- 
dents. Moreover, as most offences against good order were 
also sins, it was hard to see where the Church would stop in 
its efforts to bring matters under its control. After consulting 
with his Great Council at Clarendon in 1164, Henry issued 




Canterbury Cathedral,. 

Here, east of the High Altar, Beeket's shrine, or tomb, was 
erected. Until the Reformation it was a place of pilgrimage 
to which came thousands not only from England but also 
from Europe. It was despoiled by Henry VIII. Becket 
was murdered in one of the transepts of the cathedral. 

the " Constitutions of Clarendon," which ordered that clergy- 
men guilty of certain crimes should be tried and punished in 
the king's courts, that no one should appeal to the pope with- 
out royal consent, and that the Church should not excommuni- 
cate the king's vassals without his knowledge. It happened 
that the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas a Becket, bitterly 
opposed diese decrees as contrary to the rights of the Church. 



132 THE RISE OF THE PEOPLE 

Although the king and the archbishop had once been close 
friends, a terrible quarrel broke out, which ended in the mur- 
der of the archbishop, in 1170, by some of the king's followers. 
Thomas was declared to be a saint, and the king was obliged 
to humiliate himself at his tomb, as well as to give up his 
"Constitutions." In the end Henry enforced his principles, 
and the attempt of the Church to crowd him out of his proper 
work failed. For one thing the Church was grateful to him, 
and this was the partial conquest of Ireland in 1171. His 
last days were embittered by conflicts with his sons and his 
wife. Louis of France had died, and Philip II., a vigorous 
young king, had already begun to turn the tide against the 
Angevin power. 

SUMMARY 

I. Rise of the People. — 1. Their situation improved by (a) growth 
of custom and grant of written promises of privileges, (&) the 
interest nobles had in their prosperity, (c) the movement to es- 
tablish peace, (d) the increasing importance of trade. 2. Their 
towns grow rich and strong : (a) relation of this prosperity to 
crusades ; (b) towns which feel the revival first ; (c) how towns- 
men became self-governing in Italy ; (d) attitude of German and 
French kings toward towns ; (e) how a French commune was 
created ; (/) difference between a commune and a town with a 
charter of privileges ; (g) Italian cities take advantage of rivalry 
of pope and emperor ; (h) the Roman commune. 
II. Germany, France, England. — 1. Quarrels in Germany : (a) be- 
tween ducal houses ; (b) effect of these quarrels in hampering 
Frederick I. in his Italian campaigns ; (c) Frederick's notion of 
his imperial rights in Italy ; (d) combination by which he was 
defeated. 2. France : («) dangerous neighbors, Frederick I. and 
Henry II. ; (6) support of the Church ; (c) growing sentiment of 
loyalty. 3. England, Henry II. : (a) efforts to hold his territory 
together ; (6) as a lawgiver ; (c) his conflict with the Church. 

Special Point of View : — 

The Church : 1. Influence in promoting peace. 2. Relation of bishops 
to town liberties. 3. Struggle with Frederick I. for control in 
Italy. 4. The Roman commune. 5. Conflict with Henry II. 
over jurisdiction of royal judges. 



SUMMARY 133 



IMPORTANT DATES 

Eleventh and twelfth centuries, rise of the cities. 

1176. Battle of Legnano, defeat of Frederick I. in his struggle with the 

towns. 
1180. Accession of Philip II. in France. 
1189. Death of Henry II. of England. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading: Stubbs, Early Plantagenets ; Mrs. J. R. Green, 
Henry II. ; Gibbins, History of Commerce in Europe. 

Paragraphs : — 

123-132. The Towns : in general : Emerton, Mediceval Europe, Ch. 15 ; 
Adams, Civilization, Ch. 12; Cheyney, Ch.3 ; Cunningham, Ch. 2 ; 
Commerce, Gibbins, 34-40. 

125. Peace: Emerton, 568-571 ; for documents, see Tr. and Rp., Vol. I., 
No. 2, pp. 6-9 ; Robinson, No. 90 ; Henderson, 208-215. 

127. Arab Civilization : see 49 : Munro and Sellery, 224-239 ; Lane- 
Poole, Ch. 8 ; English Towns : Green, 92-95, 193-201 ; Tr. and 
Rp., Vol. II., No. 1 (English Towns and Gilds); Kendall, No. 23 
(Picture of London) ; Robinson, Nos. 161-165 ; Colby, 25-28. 

129-130. French Towns : Jones, Nos. 8, 9 ( Rise of Cities and Trades 
in Paris). 

131. Second Crusade : Emerton, 374-376 ; Privileges of Crusaders, 

Tr. and Rp., Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 9-10; Henderson, 333-336; 
Thatcher-McNeal, No. 284; Robinson, No. 129 (St. Bernard 
blamed for the disaster). 

132. Frederick I. and the Pope : Emerton, 282-312 ; Alzog, II., 547- 

563 ; the principal documents are in Henderson, 410-430 ; 
Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 98-109. 
135-136. Henry II. : Macy, Ch. 12 ; longer in Stubbs ; for the study 
of the legal development of England, see documents in Adams 
and Stephens, Nos. 12-20; a more general selection in Lee, 
Nos. 58-63 ; see also Kendall, Nos. 20, 21 ; Colby, No. 23. 

Additional Reading: Ramsay, Angevin Empire; Balzani, The Popes 
and the Hohenstaufen. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE RUIN OF THE EMPIRE: THE GROWTH OF ENG- 
LAND AND FRANCE 

137. Europe, 1180-1273. — The struggle for the supremacy 
of the Church, which Gregory VII. had begun in the controversy 
about investitures, was reopened in the twelfth century by the 
attempt of Frederick I. to establish imperial control over the 
Italian cities. A century later it led to the extinction of 
Frederick's family and the humiliation of the Empire. One 
consequence was that the centre of interest passed to England 
and France. These kingdoms were becoming better organized 
and stronger than the Empire. Their peoples began to have a 
part in general affairs. In the earlier days the townsmen had 
bought or won charters for their particular towns ; now they 
felt that they should care also for the interests of the whole 
country. The kings saw the need of gaining the support of 
the towns as well as of compelling them to contribute greater 
sums in taxes. 

138. The Early Career of Philip Augustus. — Philip II. be- 
came king of France in 1180, nine years before the death of 
Henry II. of England, his vassal for all western France. 
Since he was only fifteen years old, his uncles of the great 
Champagne family or their rival, the count of Flanders, hoped 
to manage his affairs. He soon taught them a lesson, for he 
was remarkably skilful in using one ambitious man to thwart 
the schemes of another. When the conflict was over, he had 
added several rich fiefs to the royal domain. He succeeded 
also in setting Henry's sons against their father and in strength- 
ening his own influence in their lands. When Eichard the 

134 



PHILIP CONQUERS NORMANDY 135 

Lion-hearted became king, Philip grew cautious, for Richard 
loved a battle even more than he. Both had another reason 
why they should be at peace. Jerusalem had been captured 
in 1187 by Saladin, sultan of Egypt, and a Third Crusade 
had been proclaimed for its recovery. It would have been 
dishonorable for Philip and Richard to refuse their aid, and 
they agreed to go together. Frederick Barbarossa had pre- 
ceded them, but was drowned in attempting to cross a river 
in Asia Minor. This Third Crusade was not so dismal a fail- 
ure as the Second had been, for it was glorified by Richard's 
brilliant deeds of arms and by the chivalrous conduct of Sala- 
din ; but Jerusalem was not recaptured, and the Christians 
retained only a strip along the coast with the privilege of visit- 
ing Jerusalem as pilgrims. Long before it came to an end in 
1192 Philip and Richard had quarrelled and Philip had hast- 
ened home to do his new enemy as much harm as possible in 
his absence. Richard, on his return, was captured and held 
for ransom thirteen months by the German emperor, Henry 
VI., the son of Frederick. Philip vainly tried to persuade 
Henry to keep Richard in prison, while he and Richard's 
brother John divided his lands between them. 

139. Philip conquers Normandy and Anjou. — When Rich- 
ard died in 1199 Philip's opportunity came. John was a 
match for him neither in war nor in negotiation. Moreover, 
John was so treacherous and wicked that nobody trusted him. 
It happened that John had a nephew, Arthur of Brittany, the 
son of John's elder brother, who had a good claim to all the 
inheritance. Philip first supported Arthur and then abandoned 
him, when he found it convenient to make peace with John. 
As soon as he thought the time had come for a final struggle, 
Philip found in John's oppression of several of his own vas- 
sals an excuse for reopening the quarrel. Philip as overlord 
summoned John to Paris to be judged by the barons, and wheu 
John did not appear declared his lands on the Continent con- 
fiscated. Again Arthur was Philip's ally. John captured 
Arthur and murdered him, but this only helped Philip by 



136 



THE GROWTH OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 



arousing the indignation of all just men against the wicked 
king. The result was that in 1204 John lost all the lands north 
of the Loire and part of those south of it. The French royal 
domain was almost doubled in size, and no single nobleman was 
henceforward a dangerous rival. A little while afterward, 




Chateau Gaillard. 

This Chateau Gaillard, "gay" or " saucy " castle, washuilt by Richard I. 
of England in 1197, to control the river Seine and the road from Paris 
into Normandy. It was placed on a chalk spur projecting from the 
plateau above. A masterpiece of mediseval engineering, it defied the 
attacks of Philip Augustus five months, although King John made no 
attempt to relieve it. Its capture was effected by taking successively 
the outworks which extended up the slope, toward the foreground 
of the picture. Dismantled by royal order in the seventeenth century. 



when John had been excommunicated by Pope Innocent III., 
because he would not allow the pope's candidate to become 
archbishop of Canterbury, Innocent declared John deposed 
and offered the English crown to Philip. Philip actually 
hoped to turn the tables completely on the Angevin kings, but 
John parried the blow by making peace with the pope and 
promising to become his vassal for the whole kingdom of Eng- 



THE GREAT CHARTER 137 

land. John made a final attempt to stir up enemies against 
Philip and to recover the lost possessions, but in 1214 Philip 
won a great victory at Bouvines over the invading army, and 
John was forced to content himself with what remained to him 
south of the Loire. 

140. The Great Charter. — John was distrusted by his Eng- 
lish subjects as well as by the pope and by Philip. The final 
defeat of his allies at Bouvines gave the barons a chance to put 
an end to his tyrannies. In 1215 they compelled him to meet 
them at Runnymede, within sight of Windsor Castle, and sign 
Magna Charta, or the Great Charter. This Charter was mainly 
a confirmation of the rights or privileges which the king's 
vassals claimed as their heritage, but the rights conceded to 
them they were to concede to their tenants, so that all free- 
men were to be benefited. Moreover, some of the rights were 
later, and in a broader form, embodied in English law and be- 
came the heritage of Englishmen wherever they dwelt, whether 
in England or in America or in Australia. No free man was to 
be seized or imprisoned " except by the lawful judgment of his 
peers or by the law of the land." The known law was each 
man's bulwark even against the king, and whether a man had 
broken the law was to be decided by other men like himself 
and not by the king's officers. There was another promise 
made which might grow into the right of the taxed to decide 
what sums they should pay to the king. This declared that 
the king would not ask for any but the ordinary " aids " with- 
out the consent of all his barons in the " Great Council." As 
John was now the pope's friend, the pope denounced the barons 
as rebels, and declared that John was not bound to keep such 
a promise. The barons, supported by the citizens of London, 
paid no attention to the papal threats, and attempted to depose 
John for breaking his word, but his sudden death in 1216 put 
an end to the struggle. 

141. The Albigensian Crusade, 1209. — Pope Innocent III., 
who had interfered in English affairs so much during John's 
reign, attempted everywhere to carry out the theory of Gregory 



138 THE GROWTH OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

VII., that as God's representative on earth the pope was final 
judge in all great moral questions. His reign lasted from 1198 
to 1216. He interfered in the affairs of France, of Germany, 
and of many of the smaller countries. In southern France 
two religious sects had arisen, — the Waldenses and the Albi- 
genses. The Waldenses worshipped God much as do the 
Protestants now ; but the Albigenses held strange notions 
about the world as a battle-ground between God and the Devil, 
believing that the only way to triumph over evil was to with- 
draw wholly from the gross life of the senses. Innocent was 
alarmed by the spread of such ideas and preached a crusade 
against the Albigensian heretics. The result was that a great 
army of northern barons and churchmen, zealous for the faith 
and eager for plunder, descended on the south, burned some 
of its fairest towns, and murdered thousands of men, women, 
and children. Innocent was troubled by these horrors and 
by the cruel covetousness of the conquerors. The leader of 
this army was Simon de Mont fort. His reward was several 
of the richest fiefs in the south, taken from the possessions 
of the count of Toulouse, who was accused of protecting the 
heretics. It was the French king who finally profited by the 
war, because Simon's heir turned over his claims to the king. 
Another consequence was the creation of two great preaching 
orders of monks, the Dominicans and the Franciscans, who 
instead of shutting themselves in monasteries went about com- 
bating heresy by preaching and teaching. The punishment of 
heresy was made more prompt and severe by the establishment 
of a special court, called the Inquisition, for the trial of these 
cases. 

142. The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204. — Innocent was still 
less to be congratulated upon the exploits of another band of 
crusaders which he got together for the recovery of Jerusalem. 
This army was persuaded, chiefly by the Venetians, to attempt 
the restoration of an exiled prince to the throne of the Byz- 
antine Empire. When this prince was unable to satisfy his 
greedy friends, they captured and sacked Constantinople. The 



RUIN OF THE EMPIRE 139 

imperial territory also was divided among the conquerors, 
Venice obtained three-eighths, and a Latin Empire took the 
place of the old Greek Empire for a little over fifty years. 

143. Ruin of the Empire. — Innocent had been saved from 
a serious quarrel with the Empire by the sudden death in 1197 
of Henry VI., a dangerous antagonist who had married the 
heiress of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily and whose lands 
therefore hemmed in the papacy on the south as well as on the 
north. It was only after Innocent's death in 1216 that Henry's 
son, the brilliant Frederick II., became equally formidable. 
His stronghold was his Sicilian kingdom, where for the feudal 
way of governing he had substituted a more modern method, 
with officials, an army, and a navy paid for with money raised 
by taxation. In northern Italy he was more successful than 
his grandfather in managing the cities ; but in Germany he did 
not venture to try such plans, for the nobles were constantly 
growing stronger. The popes, alarmed at his power and 
angered by his disobedience to their commands, determined to 
exterminate the entire Hohenstaufen family. They excom- 
municated him and his sons, preached crusade after crusade 
against them, and sought in the royal houses of England and 
France for rivals who might seize his lands. In the midst of 
the conflict Frederick died. Nearly twenty years later his 
grandson, Conradin, perished miserably at Naples, and his 
Sicilian kingdom passed into the hands of his executioner, 
Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France. From 
Frederick's death in 1250 until 1273 the Empire was practi- 
cally without a ruler, and the time is called the Great Inter- 
regnum. 

144. Effect on the Church. — These conflicts between Empire 
and papacy were dangerous to both. The Church had grown 
up within the framework of the old Empire, and the bishop of 
Rome had claimed a jurisdiction as wide as that of the emperor. 
Christians, from St. Jerome's time, had been taught that the 
Empire must endure until the world itself was ended. What- 
ever crippled it would injure its counterpart, the papacy. The 



140 THE GROWTH OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

only gainers would be the western kings, who were inclined to 
deny the superiority of the emperors, and who did not hesitate 
to resist the pope's attempts to interfere in the affairs of their 
own kingdoms. A time might come when national churches 
would break away from papal rule much as nations had already 
become independent of the emperor. 

145. End of the Crusades. — Meanwhile the crusades, in 
which the popes had appeared marshalling a united Chris- 
tendom, had come to an inglorious conclusion. Frederick II. 
had made a treaty by which Jerusalem, with a small strip 
along the coast, was surrendered to him for ten years ; but the 
city, in 1244, again passed into the hands of the Egyptian 
sultan, and soon afterward the petty Christian principalities 
were also obliged to give up the contest. Louis IX. of France 
attempted to restore the fortunes of the war by attacks on 
Egypt, in 1249, and upon Tunis, in 1270; but the first led to 
his capture, and in the second he perished of the plague. The 
struggle was maintained for a time from the islands of Rhodes 
and Cyprus by bands of military monks, like the Hospitallers 
and the Templars. The Teutonic Knights, a similar order, 
sought, after 1226, another field of warfare for the Church in 
the lands of the pagan Prussians. What the Knights con- 
quered German farmers occupied, so that the southeastern 
shores of the Baltic have remained German to this day. 

146. St. Louis, 1226-1270. —In Philip II., called Augustus, 
France had a king who was a ruler as well as a conqueror. In 
earlier days the kings had in their principal towns provosts, 
who looked out for their own interests quite as much as for 
royal rights. Partly to control them, partly to manage effec- 
tively the domain, now more than double what it had been, 
Philip appointed bailiffs and seneschals over districts large 
enough to include several provostships, and held them all to 
strict account. He was a man to make the royal power 
dreaded rather than loved or revered. It was his grandson, 
Louis IX., or St. Louis, as he is ordinarily called, who made 
the monarchy sacred in the eyes of the people, because, above 



MISRULE IN ENGLAND, HENRY III. 



141 



all things, lie prized justice. He was so anxious to be just that 
he even abandoned some of the lands which his less scrupulous 
grandfather had taken from his English vassal south of the 
Loire. When he was sure that his cause was just, he did not 
hesitate to strike hard blows in its defence. Though a devoted 
.churchman, he stoutly resisted the attempts of the popes, in 
the midst of their struggle with Frederick II., to exact money 
from the French clergy. Later he ceased to oppose papal tax- 
ation, because he wished the pope's aid in compelling the 
clergy to contribute for his crusades. He sought to put an end 




A Fight between Armed and Mounted Knights of the Time of 
Henry III. 

to neighborhood wars between the nobles and to bring their 
disputes before his courts. Among the people he was best 
remembered as sitting at the foot of an oak, in his forest of 
Vincennes, administering justice to all, rich and poor, great 
barons or defenceless citizens. 

147. Misrule in England, Henry III, 1216-1272. — In Eng- 
land there was no St. Louis to protect the rights of the people 
and to give just judgments to all. The king, Henry III., son 
of John, was a weak man, who allowed the country to be over- 
run with papal collectors, and permitted the pope to appoint 
many Italians and other foreigners to positions in the English 



142 THE GROWTH OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

Church.. But the promises made in the Charter had not been 
forgotten by the barons and the people. The leader of the 
barons was Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, son of that 
Simon de Montfort who had led the crusaders against the Albi- 
genses. Edward, the king's son, tried to weaken the barons 
by showing that they were anxious to have their own privileges 
respected, while they cared very little for the rest of the 
nation. Simon, after he had defeated the king and his son at 
Lewes, in 1264, sought to obtain support from all classes of 
people by convening a great council in which all should appear 
or be represented. It will be remembered that Henry II. had 
used the plan of having men selected in each county to declare 
who were criminals, as well as who owned property, or what 
the ancient customs of a community were. It was easy to 
carry this method a little farther, and to summon representa- 
tives of the counties or of the towns to say how much these 
could pay toward the public expenses, or to approve decisions 
which the king or some leader like Simon had made. The 
great council of the barons had meanwhile received the name 
of parlement, or parliament, as it is now spelled, a word which 
suggests speaking. When Simon called a parliament in 1265, 
he summoned not only the barons of his party personally, but 
directed that four knights be sent from each county and two 
representatives from certain towns. Although this body was 
called a parliament, and although it contained representatives 
of all the classes now represented in an English parliament, it 
was not asked to make laws or to argue about governmental 
expenses. Its business was to agree to what Simon had already 
thought best to do. He was speedily overthrown, but the 
example he had set was not forgotten. 

148. Edward I., 1272-1309, and Parliament. — Fortunately, 
when the weak Henry was dead he was succeeded by his son 
Edward, who was anxious to win back the confidence which 
the people had felt in Henry II. in the days before the mis- 
rule of his sons and of his grandson. At first Edward gener- 
ally asked money from assemblies of the barons and clergy, 



PHILIP IV. OF FRANCE 143 

or from towns, rather than from parliaments like Simon de 
Montfort's. This was a dangerous practice, for only by insist- 
ing that he must deal with all classes in a general parliament 
was the nation likely to check the old tyrannies. Separate 
assemblies could be played off against one another. In 1295 
a great danger threatened the king and forced him to seek the 
support of the whole country. There had been a dispute in 
Scotland about the kingship. Edward had decided it in favor 
of Balliol, a member of the Scottish royal house ; but he seized 
the opportunity to turn certain vague rights of lordship over 
Scotland into actual control. The Scots had no mind to be 
treated in this way; they revolted, and made a treaty with 
Edward's enemy, Philip IV. of France. To gain strength for 
the contest Edward called together a parliament which has 
been named the Model Parliament, because it had representa- 
tives of all classes of men, — the barons, bishops, and abbots, 
knights representing the counties, and two citizens from each 
of the towns. This did not mean that Edward gave up all 
idea of obtaining money from groups of his subjects without 
asking parliament, for he attempted it the following year. 
The grumbling and open resistance which he found compelled 
him to promise another parliament that he would not demand 
taxes which it had not granted. As Edward was an honest 
king, such a promise meant more than it would have from some 
kings. After this, English kings occasionally took money 
from their subjects without asking parliament ; but it became 
more and more dangerous to do so because the right of parlia- 
ment was steadily maintained by barons, clergy, and towns. 
Edward's treatment of the Scots was a failure. They soon 
recovered their independence, under Robert Bruce, like Balliol 
a descendant of the old royal house. Edward was more suc- 
cessful with the Welsh, whom he conquered and whose alle- 
giance he won by granting them wise laws and by presenting 
his son to them as Prince of Wales. 

149. Philip IV. of France, 1285-1314. — Philip IV. of 
France, with whom Edward often quarrelled, was a grandson 



144 THE GROWTH OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

of St. Louis, but he did not inherit any great love of justice. 
He meant to make his law supreme. This was not altogether 
bad in a country where the nobles were frequently lawless and 
oppressive. The French royal courts, like the English courts, 
grew out of the king's council of barons or of clergy. Curi- 
ously enough they came to be called " parlements," while in 
England this name was gradually affixed to the assembly of 
the barons, the clergy, and the citizens. 

150. France and the Papacy. — In Philip's reign it became 
clear that the death of the German Hohenstauf ens had by no 
means established the superiority of the popes over kings, for 
Philip became a far more dangerous antagonist than Fred- 
erick II. had been. When the war broke out between Philip 
and Edward, both kings wished to tax their clergy as well as 
their other subjects. In England and France the clergy refused, 
because Pope Boniface VIII. had, in 1296, issued a papal bull 
or decree that clergymen were not to pay taxes to princes 
without permission from the pope. Edward immediately de- 
clared that if the clergy would pay no taxes, they should not 
be protected in his courts, and that any one who maltreated 
them or seized their property would go unpunished. This 
brought them to terms at once. Philip chose a method quite 
as effective. He forbade any gold or silver to be sent from 
France into Italy. This bore hard upon the papal treasury, 
since it collected heavy taxes from the French clergy. Boni- 
face was obliged to yield and to allow the king to take money 
from the clergy in case of great need, which meant any time 
that Philip wanted it badly. 

151. The States General. — A few years afterward, in 1302, 
the quarrel broke out again more fiercely. Philip now did 
just what Edward had done a few years before when he found 
himself in danger : he gathered his barons, clergy, and citizens 
from the towns about him in what were called the " estates " 
or " states general." The clergy were deemed the first " es- 
tate " or social class, the nobles the second, and the townsmen 
now formed a third. The meeting of 1302 was probably not 



THE PAPACY HUMILIATED 145 

the first assembly of this kind in France, but it was more 
notable, and has been taken as the beginning of the states 
general. Still less than the English parliament was it called 
together to give advice ; it was simply to approve what the 
king had decided upon, in order that his letters to the pope 
might have greater weight. Instead of yielding, the pope 
published a new bull, in which he declared that the superiority 
of the pope, as God's vicar, over princes was a doctrine of the 
Church, to disbelieve which imperilled a man's salvation. 

152. The Papacy Humiliated. — Philip's lawyers persuaded 
him to appeal from Boniface to a general council of the Church. 
Meanwhile one of them went into Italy, joined the pope's 
personal enemies, and attacked him in his own town, planning 
to carry him off to France. This plot failed, but the pope 
died shortly after of chagrin. Two years later a pope was 
elected who was thoroughly under French influence and who, 
in 1309, took up his residence at Avignon on the eastern borders 
of France. Avignon remained the papal residence until 1377, 
and this period of nearly seventy years is called the Babylo- 
nian captivity of the Church. 

153. The Templars. — The pope was not the only person 
who suffered from the violence of Philip's rule. The crusades 
had ended and the Templars, a military order which had been 
organized in Palestine, had made their headquarters in France, 
where they possessed great estates. As they were rich, they 
were accused by the envious of heinous crimes. Philip's ad- 
visers took advantage of these rumors. The members of the 
order were all arrested in 1307, and many of them were con- 
demned and burnt as sorcerers and heretics. Their riches went 
to the king. In this affair Philip had compelled the pope to 
assist him in procuring the formal dissolution of the order. It 
was evident that although the Hohenstaufen emperors had 
been destroyed, the papacy had not yet realized the dream of 
Gregory VII. 



146 THE GROWTH OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

SUMMARY 

I. Government. — 1. Consequences of strong rule in France : (a) terri- 
torial gains under Philip II. ; (6) establishment of control in south 
after Albigensian crusade ; (c) king regarded more and more as 
fountain of justice after Louis IX. ; (d) Philip IV. organizes 
courts ; (e) Philip IV., backed by states general, triumphs over 
the papacy. 2. Results of misrule in England : (a) territorial 
losses in western France ; (6) efforts through Magna Charta 
to check royal tyranny ; (c) revolt of barons under Simon de 
Montfort, beginnings of parliament ; (d) insistence that even a 
wise king like Edward I. shall have subsidies only by grant of 
parliament. 3. Comparison of English and French situations : 
(a) need in France, strong power to keep the nobles from bring- 
ing back feudal anarchy ; (&) need in England of union between 
barons and townsmen to control king and guard against misrule ; 
(c) similar institutions, courts, representative bodies like parlia- 
ment and states general. 4. Germany ruined by entanglements 
in Italy : (a) consequences of the marriage of Henry VI. and the 
heiress of Sicily ; (6) struggle of Frederick II. against the popes ; 
(c) the Great Interregnum. 
II. End of Crusades. — (a) effects of the rivalry of Philip II. and 
Richard I. on success of Third ; (6) object of Fourth and its re- 
sults ; (c) character of Albigensian crusade ; (d) agreement made 
by Frederick II. ; (e) attempts of St. Louis ; (/) general results. 

Special Review: relations of papacy and empire between 1073 and 
1268. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1204. Conquest by Philip II., of France, of Normandy and Anjou; Fourth 

Crusade. 
1215. The Great Charter of England. 
1265. Simon de Montfort's parliament. 
1270. Death of Louis IX. 
1295. Edward I. calls the Model Parliament. 
1302. Philip IV. summons the states general. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading: Lodge, End of the Middle Ages; Hutton, Philip 
Augustus; Perry, St. Louis; Creighton, Simon de Montfort; 
Tout, Edward I. ; Frazer, English History illustrated from 
Original Sources, 1307-1399; Hill, Liberty Documents. 



SUMMARY 147 

Paragraphs : — 

138. Philip II. : Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 81-88 ; see 

selections in Robinson, No. 94 ; Colby, No. 27 ; for the Third 
Crusade, see Archer's Crusade of Richard /., containing many 
selections from contemporary writings; Thatcher-McNeal, 
No. 285. 

139. Conquest of Normandy : a contemporary account in Robinson, 

94 a, the capture of the Chateau Gaillard, the most interesting in- 
cident. See Kitchin, I., 296-304. 

140. The Great Charter : Green, 122-132 ; Macy, Ch. 13 ; Roger 

Wendover's account of the struggle, in Kendall, pp. 72-78 ; briefer 
in Robinson, No. 99 ; see also Hill, Ch. 2 ; Colby, 29 ; text of 
Charter, in Tr. and Rp., Vol. I., No. 6 ; Adams and Stephens, 
Henderson; principal provisions in Robinson, No. 110. 

142. Fourth Crusade : selections from Ville-Hardouin and other con- 

temporaries in Tr. and Rp., Vol. III., No. 1. For the history of 
the crusade see Pears. 

143, 144. Ruin of the Empire and its effect upon the Church : see 

particularly Bryce, Ch. 13 ; Emerton, 350-356 ; documents in 
Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 134-145. 

145. Results of the Crusades : Munro and Sellery, 248-256. 

146. St. Louis: Joinville's life, in Chronicles of the Crusades, also 

published separately ; selections in Robinson, No. 95 ; Munro and 
Sellery, 366-375. For the development of France, see Emerton, 
Mediaeval Em-ope, Ch. 12, and Adams, Civilization, Ch. 13. 

147. Misrule in England : Gardiner, 193-204 ; selections from con- 

temporary writings, in W. H. Hutton's Misrule of Henry III., and 
in J. Hutton's Simon de Montfort and his Cause; more briefly in 
Kendall, Nos. 25-27. See also Creighton. 

148. The Model Parliament: Macy, 176-181; Tout, Edward the 

First ; specimen writs of summons in all the source books ; 

Scotland, Hume Brown, I., 133 ff. ; wars with the Scots, Frazer, 

Nos. 5-8, 19-21, 23-25. 
149-152. Philip IV. and Pope Boniface: Kitchin, I., 364-393; the 

papal bulls are in Henderson, pp. 432-437, Tr. and Rp., Vol. III., 

No. 6 ; Thatcher-McNeal, Nos. 162, 164. 
153. The Templars: Guizot, II., 190-196. 

Additional Reading: Pears, Fall of Constantinople ; Hume Brown, 
History of Scotland, Vol. I. 



CHAPTER X. 

WARS OF NATIONS AND RACES : THE CRY OF REFORM 
IN THE CHURCH 

154. Two Centuries of Conflict. — Hardly had the new king- 
doms begun to be better organized than they were involved in 
terrible struggles with one another or with Asiatic invaders 
that pressed into Europe across the ruins of the old Greek 
Empire. In the confusion the larger interests of Christendom 
suffered. The German Empire became a weak confederation. 
The papacy was dragged down from the majestic position it 
had occupied under Gregory VII. or Innocent III. Conflicts 
began to rage within the Church and the consciences of good 
churchmen were sorely vexed in the midst of discordant cries, 
sinister warnings of the greater divisions which were to come 
later. 

155. The Hapsburgs, 1273-1453. — In the Holy Roman 
Empire the Great Interregnum was brought to an end in 1273 
by the choice as emperor of Rudolph, count of Hapsburg. Not 
long afterward he took Austria from the king of Bohemia. 
From this time forth his family became associated with Austria, 
although it was still called the House of Hapsburg. It was 
not always equally fortunate in attempting to extend its do- 
mains. It was twice disastrously defeated by the Swiss 
cantons, at Morgarten in 1315 and at Sempach in 1386, which 
thus laid the foundations of their independence. About this 
struggle cluster the legends of William Tell. 

156. The Imperial Electors. — Although after a time the 
emperors were usually chosen from the House of Hapsburg, at 
first the crown passed from Hapsburg to Nassau, back to 

148 



THE CITIES OF THE EMPIRE 149 

Hapsburg, next to Luxemburg, then to Bavaria, and again to 
Luxemburg. This was partly due to the efforts of the Ger- 
man princes to give the crown to some one who was ready to 
make them liberal promises at the expense of imperial rights. 
These princes came to be called electors. There were seven of 
them : the three archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Koln or 
Cologne, the count palatine, the king of Bohemia, the margrave 
of Brandenburg, and the duke of Saxony. Although these 
men did not intend to grant the reigning emperor much power, 
they were ready to defend his dignity against papal attacks. 
When in 1338 Louis of Bavaria was almost ready to humble 
himself in any way the pope wished, if only the pope would 
acknowledge his title, the electors drew up a declaration that 
the choice of the emperor rested with them and that this choice 
needed no confirmation by the pope or anybody else. Their 
control of elections was expressly confirmed in a charter or 
Golden Bull, issued by Charles IV. in 1356, and which, with 
some changes, remained the law of imperial elections until the 
beginning of the nineteenth century. The Golden Bull also 
made the electoral princes practically sovereign within their 
own domains. Thus while the royal power was gaining 
victories in France over the feudal lords, the German nobles 
were transforming themselves into independent rulers. 

157. The Cities of the Empire. — During the same time many 
of the German cities were freed from direct rule either by the 
emperor or by the great lords. They were more independent 
than the French communes ; for the French lawyers understood 
that by the grant of a communal charter a city became the 
king's whether it had been his before or had belonged to one 
of his vassals. In order to render their trade safe from sea- 
rovers or plundering barons, the cities united in leagues like 
the Swabian League and the Hanseatic League. In its best 
days the Hanseatic League numbered over seventy towns, and 
its ships carried all the trade of the north. Its " Steelyard " 
or colony, at London was one of the greatest centres of English 
commerce. In Italy, also, the Empire had practically lost its 



150 



WARS OF NATIONS AND RACES 



power. The cities had been left to themselves. Since they 
no longer had common liberties to fight for, they quarrelled with 
one another. Gradually they fell into the hands of their most 
ambitious citizens, and, like Venice and Genoa, became what 




Copyri 



The Holstenthor, one of the mediaeval gates of 
Liibeck, the capital of the Hanseatic League. 



are called oligarchic republics, or, like Milan, were ruled by 
military adventurers whom they had called in to fight against 
their neighbors. 

158. The Salic Law. —After the death of Philip IV., in 1314, 
it seemed as if the French monarchy also might be ruined by 
quarrels over the succession to the crown, for each of Philip's 
three sons had only daughters. When the oldest died the 
second brother got himself made king, excluding his niece from 



THE SEVEN ELECTORATES 



151 




152 



WARS OF NATIONS AND RACES 



the throne. A few years afterward the third brother did the 
same thing. When he died in 1328, there were the daughters 
of the three brothers living, as well as a sister's son, Ed- 
ward III., who had become king of England the year before. 
There was also a cousin, Philip of Valois. Philip did just 
what his cousins had done be- 
fore : he seized the crown and 
left the lawyers to discover a 
reason why women could not 
inherit the French crown, nor 
even men whose only title was 
received from their mothers. 
Eventually the lawyers brought 
forward a reason which they 
called the Salic Law, although 
the real Salic Law or law of 
the Salian Franks had merely 
declared that no woman could 
inherit Salic or Frankish land. 
Since women could inherit fiefs 
there was no reason why they 
should not inherit the crown, 
except the political reason that 
through marriage they might 
transfer the crown to some for- 
eign prince. From this time 
forward the French crown was handed down in the male line. 
159. The Hundred Years' War. — Edward III. did not at 
first seek to make good his claim to the French crown. There 
were other grounds for a quarrel, disputes about Guyenne, the 
fief which Edward held of Philip, and troubles in the wool 
trade between Flanders and England. English wool was nec- 
essary for the Flemish weavers. In order to harass Philip, 
Edward, in 1336, cut off the supply of wool. The Flemings 
were ruined if their relations with England were broken off. 
Under Van Artevelde they urged Edward to assume the title 




VlNCENNES. 

The donjon of the chateau of Vin- 
cennes, situated a short distance 
east of the walls of Paris, hegun 
hy Philip VI. This great tower is 
170 feet high, its walls are 10 feet 
thick, and the moat is 40 feet deep. 



PARIS AND THE PEASANTS 153 

king of France and take the crown away from Philip. The 
war that followed is called the Hundred Years' War, because it 
did not end until 1453, when the English were driven from all 
the Continent save from the town of Calais. There were in- 
tervals of peace, but as the causes of war remained the fighting 
soon began again. In this war cannon were used probably for 
the first time in Europe. The English longbow was the most 
effective weapon, and the English yeomen were so skilful in 
shooting that in the three most famous battles they were victo- 
rious over armies much larger than their own. The first of 
these battles was at Crecy in 1346, where the English were 
commanded by Edward III., and where his oldest son, the 
Black Prince, won his spurs. Ten years later at Poitiers this 
same prince defeated the French army under King John, 
Philip's son, and took the king prisoner. The sufferings of 
France during these wars were terrible. Roving bands of 
soldiers plundered the country and murdered the peasants. 
Whole districts were turned into deserts. Just at this time, 
also, Europe, from Italy to England, was swept by a frightful 
pestilence called the Black Death. The contagion was 
brought from the East to the Italian ports and to the ports of 
southern France in 1347. It gradually spread northward, 
sometimes destroying whole villages and thousands in the 
towns. From one-third to one-half of the population of France 
and England perished. 

160. Paris and the Peasants. — After the battle of Poitiers 
the peasants and the townsmen were in an ugly mood. The 
townsmen declared that the lords were unfit to fight the battles 
of the country, that the states general of the north must help 
the king manage his affairs by appointing a council and by dis- 
missing worthless officers. The states general must also see 
that the money which they raised be spent on the war and not 
upon the king's friends and their pleasures. The leader of 
these reformers was Etienne Marcel, a draper, and provost of 
the merchants. For two years after 1356 the states general 
met frequently and seemed able to compel the dauphin, the 



154 WARS OF NATIONS AND RACES 

king's son, — for the king was a prisoner, — to do what they 
wished. In the midst of these troubles the long-suffering 
peasants north and west of Paris, driven to madness by the 
plundering soldiers and the scarcely less ruthless lords, rose 
and took vengeance on their enemies. As the ordinary peasant 
was nicknamed Jacques Bonhomme, this insurrection was 
called the Jacquerie. The peasants burnt and plundered 
castles, but killed veiy few persons, although their wandering 
bands frightened the nobles into the walled towns. For a time 
it seemed as if Paris and the " Jacques " would form a league, 
but soon the nobles recovered their courage and murdered the 
peasants by thousands. Marcel's friends and supporters began 
to decrease. His enemies declared he was ready to betray the 
city to the English and soon afterward murdered him. In 1360 
peace was made at Bretigny. Although Edward gave up his 
claim to the French crown, he was to hold many fiefs south, 
and a few north, of the Loire entirely free from any duties of 
vassalage toward the French king. 

161. Revolt of English Peasants. — The English people did 
not suffer directly from the ravages of the war, but they had 
to pay its expenses, and when war was renewed, after the 
treaty of Bretigny, the government was forced to invent new 
taxes, which touched peasant as well as landowners or towns- 
men. The Black Death also led to troubles between the 
peasants and the lords. In the first place the income of the 
lords had been decreased because whole families of peasants 
had disappeared and there was no one to do the customary 
work or to pay the sums ordinarily collected. Mills were 
either idle or could not pay as much rent as before. Again, as 
the lord had agreed with many of the peasants to accept money 
in place of the work which their ancestors had been obliged to 
do each week, he found that this money did not hire as many 
laborers as formerly, especially because the laborers, seeing 
that they were few in number, demanded higher wages. To 
save themselves, the landowners in parliament obtained of the 
king a law which should compel the laborers to work at the 



THE CHURCH 155 

old wages. Apparently it was not obeyed, for it was often 
repeated. Such laws angered the peasants, who had no repre- 
sentatives in parliament. Their anger increased when the poll- 
tax was decided upon in 1379. Strange ideas were passing 
through people's minds. Many of them asked, like John Ball, 
the strolling preacher, — 

" When Adam delved and Eve span, 
Who, then, was the gentleman ? " 

Two years later an insurrection, much like the Jacquerie, 
broke out in England. It has been called the Peasants' 
Revolt. Partly because they hated the king's advisers, partly 
because they desired to be rid of serfdom or to destroy the 
records of what they owed the lords, the peasants attacked 
monasteries and castles, or marched upon London. For a time 
they were successful, but afterward they were dispersed by 
the king's officers, and many of them were put to death. Al- 
though they had gained nothing, the custom of replacing ser- 
vices with money payments gradually improved their position 
until they rose to that of freemen. 

162. The Church. — As if the Hundred Years' War, the 
Black Death, and the revolt of the peasants were not troubles 
enough, the Church was rent into warring factions. In many 
places the priests and monks had fallen away from the ideal 
which the Cluny reformers and Gregory VII. had set before 
them. So far as France was concerned, the principal reason 
was the great war with England, which ruined the country, 
reducing priests to beggary and making it impossible for many 
of the monasteries to support their monks. It was not strange 
that often here and there the clergy became as rude and igno- 
rant as the lowest of their parishioners. Such evils might have 
been vigorously repressed had the bishops done their duty, but 
many of them no longer resided within their dioceses. The 
war offered an excuse for this : first, because it was dangerous 
for a bishop, faithful to either the French or the English 
party, to reside within territory held by the other ; and second, 



156 THE CRY OF REFORM IN THE CHURCH 

because the revenue of a single bishopric or abbey had so de- 
creased that it no longer was sufficient to support the abbot or 
the bishop. But these were not the only reasons, nor did they 
explain similar evils which existed elsewhere. Ambitious 
clergymen were eager to increase their power and wealth by 
holding several offices at once. A certain cardinal, who resided 
in Italy, and who held several bishoprics there, had also in 
France three bishoprics, one archbishopric, and was abbot or 
prior of six monasteries. These evils of non-residence and 
pluralities could not have been so prevalent had not princes, 
and even the popes, attempted to obtain supporters in their 
conflicts by granting such privileges. 

163. The Papal Power. — With the outcry over such evils were 
mingled protests against the efforts of the popes to make their 
control over the Church in different lands more thoroughgoing, 
and to create at Kome a court which should be the actual 
capital of Church administration. In their struggle with the 
emperors they had partially succeeded in freeing the elections 
of bishops and abbots from the interference of princes. As 
the election of the pope had been put into the hands of the 
cardinals, so the election of bishops was intrusted to the canons 
of each cathedral. But by the middle of the thirteenth century 
the popes had begun to take from the canons this very right, 
claiming the privilege of providing the vacant see with an in- 
cumbent, or of reserving sees not yet vacant to be filled by their 
appointment. The same claim was made upon various abbeys 
and upon many minor offices in each diocese. The method was 
called papal "reservations" and "provisions." In England 
the attempt to gain the right of appointment in this way was 
partially thwarted by the Statute of Provisors, passed during 
Edward III.'s reign and reenacted in 1390. Another grievance, 
felt especially by princes, was the practice of carrying from 
their courts to the pope cases in which the rights of church- 
men or Church ax^pointments were involved, making the Roman 
court a supreme court of appeal in many important matters. 
This the English sought to check by the Statute of Praemunire. 



THE SCHISM AND WTCLIFFE 157 

164. Papal Taxation. — The extension of the papal adminis- 
trative and judicial system necessitated increasing expendi- 
tures. The pope, no more than other princes, could be 
expected to live from the revenues of his own domains. Like 
them he began to levy taxes, but with this difference — that 
these fell upon the clergy everywhere rather than upon his 
own subjects in the States of the Church. The most obnoxious 
tax was the annat or one year's revenue of a bishopric or abbey 
when a vacancy was filled. This was much like the feudal 
relief which the lords were obliged to pay when they entered 
upon a fief left them by a relative. As bishops and abbots 
were often mature men and served only a short time, the tax 
must be paid frequently and was considered a great burden. 

165. The Schism and Wycliffe. — The situation in the 
Church was rendered tragically serious by the Great Schism 
which began in 1378. This was a disputed papal election. 
For many years there was one pope at Rome and another at 
Avignon, each denouncing the other as Antichrist and preach- 
ing a crusade against him. The English king refused to recog- 
nize the pope at Avignon because he was defended by the 
king of France. Other peoples also took sides in the quarrel, 
and all men's consciences were troubled. John Wycliffe, a 
teacher at the university of Oxford, thinking much upon the 
ills from which the Church was suffering, came to the conclu- 
sion that many of the claims made by the pope were wrong. 
He studied the Bible carefully and refused to accept teachings 
for which he could find no warrant there. In order that the 
people might read the Bible he and his friends translated it 
into English. He had no intention to withdraw from the 
Church, but he sent his Oxford scholars through the country 
teaching what he believed to be true Christianity. His fol- 
lowers were called Lollards, and a few years later the govern- 
ment threatened with death any who taught such doctrines. 

166. The Hundred Years' War again. — In the second period 
of the Hundred Years' War, the French recovered part of the 
lands which had been lost at the peace of Bretigny. They had 



158 



THE CRY OF REFORM IN THE CHURCH 



been taught by the disasters of Crecy and Poitiers to avoid 
great battles, to shut themselves within strong castles and 
walled towns, and to allow the English to march unopposed 
through the open country. Under bold leaders like Du Gues- 
clin they cut off stragglers and laid siege to places held by the 
English. Before the dauphin, now become Charles the Wise, 



1 




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Wycliffe's Bible. 

Facsimile of first verses of Genesis, translated by Nicholas Hereford under 
Wycliffe's direction. Wycliffe translated only a part of the Old Testament 
and the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark in the New Testament. The 
remainder was done under his direction. It was completed in 1383-1384o 

was dead in 1380, they had won from the English all save 
four or five coast towns. After this both countries were too 
much occupied with the strife of factions at home to carry on 
the war effectively. Edward's son, Richard II., was tyrannical 
and unpopular. He was deposed and murdered by Henry IV., 
lately duke of Lancaster, and a grandson of Edward. The 
French king, Charles VI., the son of Charles the Wise, became 



JEANNE D'ABC 159 

insane, and the government fell into the hands of his uncles. 
After a while a furious quarrel between his brother, the duke 
of Orleans, and his cousin, the duke of Burgundy, led to civil 
war. Both the duke of Orleans and the duke of Burgundy 
were murdered. The English king, Henry V., had seized the 
occasion to invade the country and in 1415 had gained another 
crushing victory at Agincourt. The new duke of Burgundy, 
believing that the king's son had had a hand in the murder of 
the late duke, went over to the English side. With his aid 
King Henry obtained possession of the poor mad king and 
made with him the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, according to 
which Henry was to marry Charles's daughter, and was to suc- 
ceed him as king of France. Shortly afterward both Henry 
and Charles died. Henry left an infant son, Henry VI., and 
the French people did not know whether to submit to him or 
to be loyal to the Dauphin Charles. Nearly all the country 
north of the Loire was in the hands either of the English or 
the Burgundians. Unfortunately Charles lacked energy, and, 
instead of fighting for his kingdom, wasted his days among his 
favorites at the castle of Chinon. Here and there brave men 
wrested from the English places which were thought secure ; 
but such deeds seemed vain, because there was no leader to 
unite all loyal men against the invader. 

167. Jeanne d'Arc. — In 1429 even the lands south of the 
Loire were in peril. An English army had laid siege to Orleans, 
and the town was threatened with famine. Orleans was saved, 
because at last a leader appeared, — Jeanne d'Arc, a peasant 
girl, scarcely nineteen years old. She was a native of Dom- 
remy, a village on the borders of Lorraine. Troubled by the 
miseries of the people, Jeanne believed that God had com- 
manded her to save Orleans and to conduct the dauphin to 
Kheims to be crowned as Charles VII. When she first told 
her story, the rough soldiers laughed her to scorn, but the com- 
mon people gladly welcomed her, believing that God had not 
abandoned them. She was sent to the dauphin, and he finally 
permitted an army to go with her to raise the siege of Orleans. 



160 



THE CRY OF REFORM IN THE CHURCH 



The English were frightened at her approach, for they thought 
her a sorceress. Her presence and eager faith breathed a new 
enthusiasm into the French soldiers, and they forced the Eng- 
lish to retreat. Jeanne conducted the dauphin to Rheinis, 

where he was crowned. 
He and his advisers were 
loath to be saved in this 
fashion, and when Jeanne 
was captured in a skir- 
mish north of Paris he did 
nothing to ransom her. 
The English, enraged by 
their defeats, were re- 
solved to put her to death 
as a heretic. At their 
command learned church- 
men tried her at Rouen, 
and there in 1431 she 
was burned at the stake. 
This did not help the 
English cause. Even 
the duke of Burgundy 
forsook them. In 1453, 
when the war ended, 
nothing was left to them 
in France except the town 
of Calais. 
168. The Pope and the Council. — The Great Schism had 
not been healed until after 1415. Some theologians had urged 
that the remedy was a general council, a kind of convention 
of the whole Church, for to its decision even the popes must 
bow. The first attempt to apply this remedy made matters 
still worse, because the council ordered a new pope elected 
before the two existing popes had agreed to withdraw, so that 
there were three popes instead of two. A more determined 
effort was made by the council of Constance which was in 















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La Tour Jeanne d'Arc. 

The donjon of the castle of Bou- 
vreuil, built by Philip Augustus after 
the conquest of Normandy in 1204. 
Here Jeanne d'Arc was imprisoned. 



THE EAST 161 

session from 1414 to 1418. It brought the Schism to an end, 
but in its attempt to reform the Church in "head and mem- 
bers/' that is, the papacy as well as the clergy and people, it 
undertook to prove that its decisions were superior to those of 
the pope. If the council had established such a claim, councils 
would have become in the Church what parliaments were in Eng- 
land, representative assemblies which must be consulted upon 
every important occasion. The council had no fondness for 
other novelties. It sent to the stake John Huss, a popular 
Bohemian preacher and theologian who had taught several of 
Wycliffe's views and had denounced the evil conduct of the 
clergy. 

169. Popes and Princes. — Since neither the council of Con- 
stance nor the council of Basel, which followed it, succeeded 
in reforming the Church, there was little hope of betterment 
unless the rulers took up the matter. England had already 
protected its rights by the statutes of Provisors and of 
Praemunire. In 1438 Charles VII. of France accomplished 
the same thing for France by the Pragmatic Sanction of 
Bourges, restoring to the canons of the cathedral the right 
to choose the bishops, and forbidding the payment of annats. 
The German princes were not so successful. By the treaty 
or concordat of Vienna ten years later they conceded to 
the pope nearly all that he asked. The cry for reform 
was unheeded. When it was raised again, a little over a half- 
century later, it was transformed into a call to revolution. 

170. The East. — While the West was troubled by wars and 
disputes, great changes were making in the East. Poland by 
its reunion with the duchy of Lithuania in 1386 ruled over ter- 
ritories from the Oder to the Dnieper, and as far south as the 
Black Sea. The Mongols did not loosen their hold upon the 
Russians until a century later, but under their shadow a new 
Russian monarchy was founded, with Moscow as a centre. 
This region, called Muscovy, was extended gradually, and, like 
the royal domain of the Capetians, came to include the great 
Russian fiefs. In southeastern Europe the Bulgarian kingdom 



162 THE CRY OF BE FOB M IN THE CHUBCH 

had sometimes gained territory at the expense of the Greek 
Empire and again had been forced to draw back. At its 
greatest it included part of Macedonia, which is still a bone of 
contention between modern Greeks and Bulgarians. It was 
overrun by a new horde of invaders whose domination was to 
be far more lasting than that of the Mongols. 

171. The Turks. — These invaders were the Ottoman Turks. 
They were originally a band of nomads which had entered the 
service of the Seljuk Turks to fight against the Mongols. 
They received their name from the emir Othman, who had 
carved out a domain for his peoples on the borders of the 
Greek Empire in Asia Minor. It was in Othmau's day that 
they had been converted to Mohammedanism, and they fought 
for their new religion with the same sort of zeal that Chlodwig 
and his sons showed for the Christian faith. As the Otto- 
mans grew in power they gathered new recruits from all the 
peoples with which they came into contact, — Greeks, Slavs, 
Albanians, Rumanians, and Magyars. The Mohammedan 
religion was the bond of union. A few years after Othman 
died, in 1330, they captured Nicsea, one of the old capitals of 
the Greek Empire and famous as the place where the first great 
Church council was held in Constantine's day. In a little 
more than twenty-five years they had crossed the narrow 
straits which separate Europe and Asia and had begun to plun- 
der the Balkan peninsula. It was their European successes 
that made them the leaders among the Mohammedans. Soon the 
emirs were able to take the title "sultan." With a firm foot- 
hold in Europe they began to conquer the other emirs in Asia 
Minor. By 1391 Bulgaria had been overrun. This alarmed 
the king of Hungary, Sigismund, afterward the German 
emperor. The other princes of the West were aroused at the 
call of the pope for a new crusade against the Turks. The 
result was a disastrous defeat at Nikopolis in 1396, because 
the French knights rushed forward with the same headlong 
folly as at Crecy and at Poitiers. This was the end of hope 
for Bulgaria. It would have hastened the fall of Constanti- 






10° 15 




ADVANCE OF THE TURKS 

o Lands held by the Ottomans in 1358, in sulid red; by the Seljuka 
in Asia Minor, outlined in red. Conquest of the Ottomans in 
Europe within fifty years, outlined in red, on the basis of the terri- 
torial situation in Eastern Europe in 1358. 

Lands held by Venice, green; by other Western Powers, purple. A 
few years later (138G) Poland and Lithuania were united. Note 
=Uso the beginnings of modern Russia in Moscow or Muscovy. 



Longitude East 30" from Greenwich 



BORMAY & C0..N. 



SUMMARY 163 

nople but for a new Mongol invasion under Tamerlane, during 
which the Turkish sultan was defeated at Angora in Asia 
Minor and his dominion shattered. For about fifty years the 
Greek Empire lived on, confined to the lands immediately 
about Constantinople and a few points on the Greek coast. 
The Turks made the final assault in 1453. As the city had 
been founded by a Constantine, it was fitting that in its death 
agony another Constantine should die defending its walls 
against the onset of the Turks. 

172. The Moors. — In the Spanish peninsula Mohammedan- 
ism was not so triumphant. Ever since the twelfth century 
Aragon in the east, Castile in the centre, and Portugal on the 
west had been steadily driving the Moors southward. Aragon 
increased its power by conquering the Balearic Islands and Sar- 
dinia. Sicily was seized after the failure of Charles of Anjou 
to hold this portion of the Hohenstaufen possessions. It was 
Castile and Portugal, however, that recovered most of the 
peninsula. Before the end of the fourteenth century Castile 
touched the Atlantic on both sides of the Guadalquivir and 
reached the Mediterranean about Carthagena, enclosing within 
these outstretched arms the little Moorish kingdom of Granada. 
Portugal had already driven the Moors out of the West and 
held the territory it still retains. 



SUMMARY 

I. The Empire. — 1. The ruling house: (a) connection of the Haps- 
burgs with Austria ; (6) their wars with the Swiss ; (c) im- 
perial crown at first not continuously theirs. 2. The electors : 
(a) method of choosing an emperor ; (&) power of the electoral 
princes. 3. The Free cities : (a) their relation to emperor and 
lords ; (6) their leagues ; (c) the trade privileges of the Hanseatic 
League. 

II. England and France. — 1. Origin of Hundred Years 1 War: 
(a) quarrel over succession to French crown ; (b) trouble about 
trade with Flanders. 2. War until the Peace of Br^tigny : 
(a) weapons ; (b) battles ; (c) defeat causes states general to 



164 THE CRY OF REFORM IN THE CHURCH 

attempt to manage the kingdom, and (d) the ruin of the peasants 
brings on an insurrection. 3. Second phase of period of the 
war : (a) uprising of the English peasants, partly because of 
taxation ; (b) contest for the English crown ; (c) turmoil in 
Erance ; (d) Agincourt and the Treaty of Troyes. 4. Last period 
of the war : (a) situation of France after death of Charles VI. ; 
(b) crisis of Orleans ; (c) career of Jeanne d'Arc ; (d) English 
driven from France. 

HE Trouble in the Church. — 1. Attitude of the imperial electors 
toward papal claims. 2. Effect of the Hundred Years' War 
upon the clergy. 3. Causes of conflict : (a) pluralities; (6) papal 
claims to appointing power ; (c) English mode of resistance ; 
(d) methods chosen by popes to raise money ; (e) a disputed 
election and the Great Schism ; (/) Wy cliff e ; (7/) attempts of 
the councils to end the Schism ; (h) attitude of the council of 
Constance toward the pope's power. 4. Settlement of the ques- 
tions in France and Germany. 

IV. The East. — 1. Poland and Lithuania. 2. The Mongols and Mus- 
covy. 3. Bulgaria. 4. Advanceof the Ottoman Turks : (a) their 
early victories ; (6) attempt to check them by a crusade ; (c) fall 
of Constantinople. 5. The Moors driven southward in the 
Spanish peninsula. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg chosen emperor. 
1328. Philip VI., first of Valois kings, ascends French throne. 
f 1346. Battle of Crecy (connect Black Death). 
\ 1356. Battle of Poitiers ; followed by efforts of Etienne Marcel and 

states general. 
1378. Great Schism ; end of Babylonian Captivity (connect Wycliffe). 
1396. Battle of Nikopolis. 
1414. Council of Constance meets. 
1420. Treaty of Troyes, preceded in 1415 by battle of Agincourt and 

murder of duke of Burgundy. 
1431. Jeanne d'Arc burned at Rouen. 
1453. English driven from France ; fall of Constantinople. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : in addition to Lodge and to histories of separate 
states, Whitman, Austria; Zimmern, Hanse Towns; Durham, 
English History from Original Sources, 1399-1485. 



SUMMARY 165 

Paragraphs : — 

155. 156. The Empire • Bryce, Ch. 14. 

157. The Cities : Hanseatic League : Munro and Sellery, 358-365 ; see 
also Zimmern, Gibbins, 60-69 ; Cheyney, 81-94. 

159. Hundred Years' War: first period: Jones, No. 4, pp. 63-69; 
selected from Froissart ; Kendall, No. 30 ; Colby, No. 39 ; Robin- 
son, Nos. 197-198 ; Frazer, many selections. Black Death (in 
England) : Kendall, No. 33 ; Colby, 40 ; Lee, No. 94 ; (in Flor- 
ence), Whitcomb, Italian Renaissance, pp. 15-18. 

161. Peasants' War : Statute of Laborers, see source books ; see also 
Cheyney, 99-125 ; selections in Frazer. 

162-165. The Church: Adams, Civilization, Ch. 16; Pastor, I., 57- 
116 ; Walker, Reformation, Ch. I. ; many illustrative writings 
and documents in Robinson, Nos. 207-213. See also 110-114. 

164. Provisors and Preemunire : see source books. For Wycliffe, 
Trevelyan ; selection from documents in Kendall, Colby, Robin- 
son, Tr. and Rp., and Frazer. 

167. Jeanne d'Arc: Kitchin, I., 536-553 ; biographies by Mrs. Oliphant 

and Percival Lowell ; selections in Durham. 

168. The Papacy and the Councils : Fisher, 254-261 ; Creighton, I., 

200 ft, 261 ff., II., 61 ff. ; Pastor, I., 174-207, 287 ff. ; documents 
in TV. and Rp., III., No. 6, pp. 25-33; Robinson, 214-216. 

169. Settlement in France and G-ermany : Creighton, II., 197-199, 

282-285; Pastor, I., 335-336, II., 38-40. 

170. The East : Lodge ; Morfill, Russia, Ch. 4. 

171. The Turks : Lodge ; Creasy, Ch. 5. 

172. The Moors: Burke, II., 26-42; Lane-Poole, Ch. 12. 

Additional Reading : Creighton, History of the Papacy, from the Great 
Schism to the sack of Rome, 6 vols. ; Pastor, History of the Popes, 
6 vols. ; Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wycliffe ; Froissart, 
Chronicles ; G. C. Macaulay's ed. of Berner's trans. ; Lanier's 
Boy's Froissart ; Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks. 

Genealogy to illustrate the Dispute about the French Crown 

in 1328 







Philip III., t 1285 






Philip IV., 1 1314 








Charles, Count 
of Valois 


1 
Louis X., t 1316 

1 


! 
Isabelle 
1 
Edward III., 
of England 


1 
Philip V., 1322 


Charles IV. 
tl828 


1 
Philip VI. 
tl350 


Jeanne, Queen of 
Navarre, 132S-1349 


1 1 
Jeanne Margaret 


House of 
Valois 



166 THE CRY OF REFORM IN THE CHURCH 

Review : Chs. 8-10 ; period 1100 to 1453 : gradual disappearance Of serf- 
dom, increasing importance of the townsmen ; strengthening of 
royal power and consolidation of territory in France, with ruin 
of English-Angevin empire ; the German-Roman Empire a loose 
confederation, the popes at first triumphant, but afterward 
thrown on the defensive. 

Special Reviews : 1. The people or middle class : (a) beginnings of 
their privileges ; (&) trade brings townsmen power ; (c) Italian 
cities, French communes or privileged towns, German Free cities; 

(d) leagues of cities, Lombard League, Hanseatic League ; 

(e) representatives of towns summoned to parliament and states 
general ; (/) temporary power of great townsmen like Etienne 
Marcel in Paris ; (g) services of peasants in England and France 
changed into money payments. 2. Downfall of English-Angevin 
power in France : (a) origin of this empire ; (&) geographical 
difficulties an obstacle of successful rule ; (c) first great attack 
by Philip II. ; (d) drags England and France into Hundred Years' 
War; (e) change in the relation of these fiefs to French king 
made by Peace of BrCtigny ; (/) resumption of French conquests 
by Charles V. ; (g) English attack nearly develops into success- 
ful seizure of French kingdom by 1420 ; (h) national uprising 
destroys this empire except Calais. 3. Transformation of Ger- 
man-Roman Empire into a loose confederation : (a) how Fred- 
erick I. was hampered by German nobles ; (&) result of the 
downfall of the Hohenstaufen family ; (c) power of the electors. 
4. Conflict between State and Church changes its nature : (a) aim 
of popes in original investiture conflict ; (6) papal aims in the 
struggle with the Hohenstaufens ; (c) object of Boniface VIII. in 
conflict with Edward I. and Philip IV. ; (cZ) complaints of papal 
taxation and of seizure of appointing power ; (e) attempts to 
resist by legislation and in general councils of the Church. 

Great Men of the Period: Henry II. , Philip II., Innocent III., 
Louis IX., Edward L, Philip IV., Edward III., Etienne Marcel, 
Wycliffe, Henry V. 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE RENAISSANCE 

173. The Renaissance. — During the early part of the Mid- 
dle Ages much that the Greeks had discovered among the facts 
which make up what we call science had been forgotten. 
Sometimes a truth like the roundness of the earth lingered as 
a tradition cherished by a few scholars but denied or ridiculed 
by most men. Even the knowledge how to make things 
decreased and with it the desire to give the products of the 
workshop an artistic form. Language itself became crude. 
Not knowing how to observe carefully what was about them, 
men were led by their fancy to crowd the world with strange 
beasts and stranger spirits. Their minds did not lose a certain 
youthful vigor, but they were full of incoherent and unreason- 
able notions. Such a state of things was bound to increase 
until the feudal system had given to society a little steadiness 
and security, until trade had revived, and western men could 
compare their thoughts with the thoughts of the Byzantine 
Greeks and of the Saracens. Here began the long, slow climb 
to the level where the Greeks and Romans had stood. In the 
last half of the fifteenth and the first part of the sixteenth 
century the men of Italy, German}^, France, and England 
caught glimpses of what the ancient world had achieved. 
They were filled with a noble enthusiasm to emulate the Greek 
and Roman masters. The time of this enthusiasm is called 
the Renaissance, or the Revival of Learning. 

174. The Earlier Revivals. — There were two or three 
" renaissances " before the great revival of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. Charlemagne's influence had brought about a revival of 

167 



168 



THE RENAISSANCE 



learning at the Frankish court under the guidance of the Eng- 
lish scholar, Alcuin. A still more brilliant and more perma- 
nently useful revival originated in the splendid empire built up 
by the successors of Mohammed. Its centre was at Bagdad, 
but its influence was felt in distant Spain. Another renais- 
sance resulted in the establishment of the European universi- 
ties and in the organization of a system of thought called 



nn 


\ j 



New College, Oxford. 

The chapel and hell tower, with a portion of the mediaeval city- 
wall. New College was built by William of Wykeham, bishop 
of Winchester, in the last years of the fourteenth century. 



scholasticism. The students of the Roman law who had 
advised Frederick Barbarossa about his rights as an emperor 
created at Bologna a great school or university, especially 
devoted to the study of law. In France the monastery and 
cathedral schools were also growing into universities. The 
school at Paris, grouped about Notre Dame early in the thir- 
teenth century, became a self-governing body, much like a 
guild of artisans or merchants. Later in the same century 
Oxford university was founded. In both Oxford and Paris 



THE SCHOOLMEN 169 

the teachers lectured in hired halls called "schools,'' while 
the students were gathered in colleges, somewhat like monas- 
teries in their management. Before the fifteenth century com- 
menced there were nearly thirty universities, some devoted to 
law, others to medicine, still others to theology. The students 
in Paris and in Oxford were numbered by thousands. At no 
time since have men seemed more eager to learn. For the 
Church this new institution might become perilous, in spite 
of the fact that it was at first loyal to the pope, from whom 
came many of its privileges, and that its early teachers were 
priests or monks. Since it was a body partly separate from 
the ordinary life of the Church, inclined to be jealous of the 
interference of the bishops, its members felt an esprit de corps, 
or university spirit, which might protect its men even when 
they refused to follow the teachings of the Church. Wycliffe 
was stoutly defended at Oxford, and Huss at the T university 
of Prague. The rise of the universities was therefore a sign 
that civilized life was beginning to leave its churchly shelter 
and to breathe an atmosphere of its own. 

175. The Schoolmen. — These schools would have hastened 
the great Renaissance of the fifteenth century had they dis- 
covered that their special task was to study with instructed 
eyes the world of things and to bring all they saw into a 
system of knowledge. The universities which, like Bologna, 
were chiefly devoted to law had the advantage that in the 
legal works of Justinian they could compare the rights and 
duties of men in later Roman society with the cruder custom- 
ary laws of mediaeval Europe. This was a study of facts. 
Unfortunately the ordinary sciences were made up of a patch- 
work of knowledge handed down by learned men of past 
generations and not corrected and supplemented by new ob- 
servations or experiments. Moreover, in every matter that 
bordered upon theology the students found ready to their 
hand a body of teachings or conclusions consecrated as true 
by the authority of the Church, and, like faithful children, 
they accepted the task of showing that all this was perfectly 



170 THE RENAISSANCE 

reasonable. In their painstaking work they became wonder- 
fully acute reasoners, following, as they supposed, the method 
of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, whose works they studied 
in a Latin version of an Arabic translation from the Greek. 
One monk, Eoger Bacon, saw that they should not take so 
many things for granted, but should make observations of 
their own. The result of their method, called scholastic, was 
that, after the greater minds, like Thomas Aquinas, Duns 
Scotus, and William of Occam, had arranged all the truth they 
knew in systems, their successors had little to do but to dis- 
cuss the same things over and over again, seeking to gain in- 
glorious victories on questions of no consequence. It is not 
surprising that at a later time the schoolmen and scholasti- 
cism were regarded with scant respect. 

176. Architecture. — The architects of this mediaeval Renais- 
sance were* more successful than the schoolmen in winning 
the lasting admiration of mankind. Their town halls, castles, 
and churches still serve as models in the art of building. The 
French architects devised a new form of construction, called 
Gothic, in which the arches were pointed and the weight of 
the roof was borne chiefly upon pillars supported by flying 
buttresses. The result was that the walls became less massive, 
so that the interior could be better lighted than buildings con- 
structed in the Romanesque or Norman manner. The Moorish 
architects of Spain worked out a modification of the Byzantine 
form of structure and w r ere famous for the beauty of their 
decorative carvings. 

177. Literature. — Although Latin maintained itself as the 
language of the Church and of the universities, books were 
also written in English, French, German, and Italian. Several 
of them were works of genius, like Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, 
Froissart's Chronicles, Dante's Divine Comedy, and Petrarch's 
Sonnets, composed in the fourteenth century. They com- 
menced the work of raising the languages of the common 
people to the level of Latin, the traditional language of re- 
ligion and of science. 



PETRARCH 171 

178. Petrarch, 1304-1374. —Petrarch supposed that his 
Latin works, rather than his sonnets, would be immortal. In 
one sense his devotion to Latin is his chief claim to greatness. 
He was among the first to search for the works of the Romans, 




Cathedral of Amiens. 

Style, Gothic; built 1220-1288; total length, 470 feet. View 
from west end of nave, which is 147 feet high. The vaulting 
of nave, transepts, and choir is supported upon 126 columns. 

to study their style with appreciation, and to cultivate in others 
a similar love. Though born in Italy of Florentine parents, he 
was brought up at Avignon. Upon his earliest visit to Rome 
he was surprised at the contrast between its mediaeval build- 
ings and the beautiful though broken monuments which sur- 



172 



THE RENAISSANCE 



vived from the ancient city. Many Romans had looked upon 
these ruins as useful quarries from which to obtain stone 
already cut, or as a storehouse of marble which might be 
burned for lime. Not so Petrarch. His mind turned more 
and more to the ancient world with eager curiosity and 
reverence. To find the lost works of Roman writers became 
one of his passions. The search which he commenced was 
taken up by princes and popes, and the recovered books were 
gathered in libraries, where they could be studied by enthu- 
siastic scholars. 




S. GlMIGNANO. 

Situated southwest of Florence, halfway to the coast. Weakened 
by dissensions between families occupying such tower fortresses, it 
was subjected to Florence in 1353. Of the fifty towers existing 
in the Middle Ages, thirteen (one 160 feet high) are still standing. 



179. Renaissance in Italy. — Italy was the land of the Renais- 
sance. This was partly due to the fact that everywhere in 
Italy were monuments that reminded men of the glories of 
their race ; it was also due to a city life as active as that of 
ancient Athens. Most of the Italian cities had lost their 



HUMANISTS AND THE PAPACY 173 

dearly purchased freedom and had fallen under the rule of 
the leading families or of successful soldiers whom they had 
employed in wars with one another. Milan now had a duke, 
first a Visconti and afterward a Sforza. Venice was ruled by 
a Council of Ten. Florence, the most remarkable of them all, 
though nominally a republic, was controlled by the Medici, a 
family of wealthy merchants. The greatest of this family 
was Lorenzo the Magnificent, who, in the later part of the 
fifteenth century, gathered about him poets, philosophers, 
architects, sculptors, and painters. He collected manuscripts 
and antiquities. His example was followed by many noble 
Florentines, by the rulers of other cities, and by the popes. 

180. The Study of Greek. — The study of ancient literature 
had ceased to be the study of what the Romans alone had pro- 
duced. Petrarch had tried, though vainly, to gain a good 
knowledge of Greek. In his day the West could furnish no 
capable teachers, nor any grammars, of the language. The 
first teacher of Greek who could explain skilfully the Greek 
poets and philosophers was Manuel Chrysoloras, who came to 
Italy on an embassy from Constantinople, asking for aid against 
the Turks. The cultured men of Florence were charmed by 
his learning and persuaded him to lecture there. This was 
in the year 1397. In order to assist his eager pupils he 
made a Greek grammar, the first in modern times. His suc- 
cess led other Greeks to visit Italy, particularly because the 
shadow of approaching ruin lay over Constantinople. In this 
way, when the last, fateful day arrived, Greek learning had 
already found a refuge far from the reach of the Turkish 
invader. 

181. Humanists and the Papacy. — The men who were 
devoted to the new studies were called Humanists, and they 
acted upon the noble old motto that nothing human was out- 
side the circle of their interests. The popes were not content 
that Florence should remain at the head of this intellectual 
and artistic life. To make Rome its capital they began to 
restore ancient churches, to undertake new buildings, and to 



174 THE RENAISSANCE 

call painters and sculptors to their aid. They also brought 
together a library, which, under Nicholas V., contained between 
five and ten thousand manuscripts. 

182. North of the Alps. — The Germans and the Nether- 
landers were the first peoples north of the Alps to feel a simi- 
lar admiration for ancient literature and art. Many of their 
cities had been enriched by commerce and adorned with beau- 
tiful town halls and churches. In Germany the princes, who 
had become almost independent of the emperor, were eager to 
found universities. From 1450 to 1506 nine were established, 
one of which was the Saxon university of Wittenberg. The 
Germans were not inclined, like many Italians, to carry their 
admiration of the Greeks and Romans to the extent of losing 
sympathy with Christianity and becoming modern pagans. 
Several of them were trained in the schools of the Brethren of 
the Common Life, an order whose task was to educate children 
and to distribute devotional books. Guided by such influences, 
they sought to rid their Christian beliefs of crude and super- 
stitious additions, and to reform the management of Church 
affairs. Since the glories of Rome were not their heritage, 
they bestowed a part of their new love of the past upon ancient 
Germany. The Emperor Maximilian and his friends searched 
everywhere for the chronicles of the early German kingdom. 

183. German Inventions. — The Germans were also practical 
inventors. They improved astronomical instruments. The 
best compasses and astrolabes were made in Nuremberg. 
There, also, Martin Behaim constructed, in 1491, a globe 
which embodied all the new knowledge of the earth, including 
the latest Portuguese discoveries. The art of printing with 
movable types was devised about the middle of the century, 
by John Gutenberg, a native of Mainz. Twenty years later 
the process, hitherto kept secret, was carried all over Europe. 
Before the century closed there were a thousand presses in 
Germany alone. 

184. Printing. — The art of printing was at first in high 
favor among churchmen, because Bibles, psalters, devotional 



P BIN TING 



175 



and theological works, could be multiplied for the use of the 
clergy. Nearly one hundred editions of the Jerome or Vulgate 
version of the Bible were printed before 1500. The printing- 
presses were equally useful in publishing the newly found 
works of the Greeks and Romans, or the poems and tales of 
French, English, and Italian writers. One of the earliest 
books that came from the press of the English William 





mmLAj. 




IP 







Nuremberg. 

In the Middle Ages a rich and influential Free city. Annexed to Bavaria in 
1806. Still surrounded by its mediaeval walls, with 100 of the 365 towers. 

Caxton, who had learned the art of printing at Cologne, 
was Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. An equally famous printer, 
Aldus Minutius of Venice, published beautiful editions of 
Aristotle, Thucydides, and other Greek writers. The multi- 
plication of such books had many important consequences. 
Learning became less than before the privilege of a few favored 
scholars. It was easier to collect libraries. The ordinary 
student could see that the Greeks and Romans not only ex- 
pressed themselves more clearly and artistically than the men 



176 THE BENAISSANCE 

of the Middle Ages, but that they had also written much which 
was better worth reading. The result was that he ceased to 
repeat slavishly what the schoolmen had taught as science, 
and became anxious to investigate for himself. Such students 
formed an army of workers organized by the scholars who 
were laying the foundations of modern science. 

185. Voyages. — It was not from books alone that new and 
wonderful things were learned. Voyages had begun, which 
were not to end until America and farthest Asia had been dis- 
covered and explored. Europeans had learned much about 
Asia from the Travels of Marco Polo, a Venetian, who had 
visited the court of the Mongol emperors in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, and who had returned by sea as far as the head of the 
Persian Gulf. Scholars searched the recovered writings of 
the Greeks and Romans for information about the earth. 
Meanwhile, the art of navigation had been improved. By the 
end of the thirteenth century the mariner's compass had come 
into general use, so that it was safer to undertake voyages far 
from the shores of Europe. Portuguese ships, with Genoese 
pilots, had discovered the Madeiras and the Azores. The 
desire of the Portuguese to fight the "infidel" in Africa, after 
they had driven him from the borders of their little kingdom, 
led to still more important voyages in the fifteenth century, 
under the direction of Prince Henry. This prince wished to 
form colonies in the Azores, and to conquer the rich lands 
which he thought lay south of the Sahara. To meet the ex- 
penses of his expeditions, he ordered his captains to engage in 
the slave trade. Each voyage carried the knowledge of African 
geography still farther, and gave scholars a deeper interest in 
the questions which had been discussed by Ptolemy and other 
Greek or Roman geographers. 

186. The French Monarchy. — Before the Renaissance af- 
fected France or England, they had emerged from their long 
wars stronger monarchies, with the power of the nobles 
broken. Charles VII. of France began to reorganize his gov- 
ernment in 1439, as soon as Jeanne d' Arc's heroic efforts had 



THE FRENCH INVADE ITALY 177 

driven the English toward the coast and the duke of Burgundy 
had broken off his alliance with them. He could no longer 
hope to live, as did his ancestors in the days before Philip 
Augustus, chiefly on the income from his own domain lands. 
Nor did he wish to be obliged to ask continually for grants of 
money from the states general. Accordingly, he followed the 
example of his grandfather, Charles V., and worked to change 
temporary grants into taxes, which he could collect without 
the express permission of the states general. His success 
enabled him to keep a strong army ready for service in foreign 
wars, or in defeating the conspiracies of restless nobles. 

187. The Unification of France, Louis XI, 1461-1483. — In 
the reign of Louis XI. the monarchy was again threatened by 
the duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, who held, besides 
Burgundy, nearly all that is now included in Holland and 
Belgium. Charles was anxious to enlarge his territory at the 
expense of Louis and to become king in the region where 
Charlemagne's grandson, Lothair, had ruled. Fortunately for 
France he was killed in battle with the Swiss in 1477, and 
Louis was able to seize the duchy of Burgundy, Picardy, Artois, 
and several other fiefs. The remainder of the heritage was 
saved for the duke's daughter, Mary, by Maximilian of Austria, 
whom she married. In Louis's reign France also gained Pro- 
vence, which with Dauphine, purchased a century before, 
carried the southeastern frontier to the Alps. His son, Charles 
VIII., married Anne of Brittany and added her duchy, the last 
of the great fiefs, to the royal domain. The feudal lords, who 
had disputed power with the kings through the Middle Ages, 
sank to the position of a nobility or aristocracy in a strongly 
organized kingdom. 

188. The French invade Italy. — The bequest which brought 
Provence to the French crown brought also a claim upon the 
kingdom of Naples and Sicily, once held by Charles of Anjou, 
brother of Louis IX. With the expedition into Italy in 1494, 
to make good this claim, began the distinctly foreign wars of 
France. Italy was torn by the rivalries of Milan, Venice, 



178 THE RENAISSANCE 

Florence, of the German emperor, the king of Naples, and the 
popes. The great Florentine preacher, Savonarola, welcomed 
the French king as if he were intrusted with the vengeance of 
God upon wicked men. After a moment of triumph, the ex- 
pedition failed disastrously, and Ferdinand of Aragon eventually 
got possession of Naples. Louis XII., who succeeded Charles 
VIII. in 1498, also claimed the duchy of Milan, because the 
grandmother of Louis XII. was a Visconti. The armies of 
Louis were more successful in the north than either his or his 
predecessor's had been in the south, and for a time his hold on 
Milan seemed secure. Both kings and nobles had seen the 
new beauties of Italy, and they carried back to France a taste 
for its art and a love for the ancient authors which the Italians 
had found so interesting. 

189. England. — England, shortly after her armies had been 
driven from France by Charles VII. , had been plunged into a 
civil war between rival claimants for the crown. There were 
two parties, the Yorkists and the Lancastrians, which had 
taken their names from the families of sons of Edward III. 
Their struggles for the crown have been called the Wars of the 
Roses, because the red rose was the favorite flower of the 
Lancastrians, while the white rose was chosen by the Yorkists. 
The Yorkists under Edward IV. held the throne almost con- 
tinuously from 1461 to 1483. Upon Edward's death his sons 
were murdered by his brother, Richard, duke of Gloucester, 
who seized the crown. He was overthrown and killed at the 
battle of Bosworth in 1485 by Henry Tudor, who had inherited 
the Lancastrian claims. This king, the seventh of the Henrys, 
made the monarchy more absolute than it had been since the 
days of the Norman and Angevin rulers. So many lords had 
been slain in the wars that the House of Lords could not 
oppose his will, and the House of Commons was too weak 
With peace and strong government prosperity increased and 
the sons of Englishmen began to journey to Italy to acquire 
the new learning. The enthusiasm which their teachings 
stirred on their return was so great that when Henry VIL 



SPAIN 179 

died in 1509, his son, Henry VIII., took the Humanists espe- 
cially under his protection \ indeed, he strove to be one of the 
leading Humanists himself. 

190. Spain. — The formation of the kingdom of Spain, des- 
tined to play the foremost part in Europe during the sixteenth 
century, was also completed at this time. Until 1474 Castile 
and Aragon had been separate kingdoms, and it had long been 
uncertain whether Castile would be united to Aragon or to 
Portugal. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella 
of Castile a few years before had settled this question. The 
task of the two monarchs was difficult, for the nobles were 
almost independent, and the country was suffering from the 
same ills which troubled France when the royal authority was 
weak. By a union of the towns, Ferdinand and Isabella suc- 
ceeded in putting down lawlessness. In the administration of 
public affairs they thrust the great nobles into the background, 
employing men from the middle class or petty nobles who had 
been trained by the study of the Koman law to believe that 
a king's will should have the force of law. After order had 
been reestablished they completed the conquest of Moorish 
Spain, in 1492, by overthrowing the little kingdom of Granada. 
They stained their victory by the cruel injustice with which 
they treated the industrious Moors who had been promised 
freedom to continue their Moslem worship. In order to save 
themselves from exile, multitudes of these Moors declared that 
they would become Christians. To compel them to keep this 
pledge, those who showed signs of falling into their old ways 
were turned over to the court called the Inquisition, and hun- 
dreds of them were burned at the stake as heretics. This rude 
method of forcing men to become loyal Spaniards had already 
been tried with the Spanish Jews. It was shortly after the 
conquest of Granada that Ferdinand added Naples to Sardinia 
and Sicily, his other possessions outside of Aragon. Early in 
the next century his possessions and those of Isabella passed 
to their grandson Charles, who was also the grandson of Mary 
of Burgundy and Maximilian. 



180 THE RENAISSANCE 

191. The Indies. — As the fifteenth century drew to a close 
the Portuguese and the Spaniards entered upon a race for the 
Indies. In 1471 the Portuguese captains had been surprised 
to discover that the coast which at the gulf of Guinea ran east- 
ward turned southward again and stretched away interminably. 
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor who had been in their 
employ, was convinced that it would be easier to reach the 
Indies by sailing directly west across the Atlantic. He had 
calculated that the eastern coast of Asia lay where the West 
India islands actually lie. In 1487, before he could carry out 
his plans, a Portuguese, Bartholomew Diaz, had rounded the 
Cape of Good Hope and had sailed a certain distance beyond. 
Since the Portuguese had reliable information about the east- 
ern coast of Africa as far south as Zanzibar, the problem of 
reaching the East Indies by sailing around Africa was solved. 
They had not been able to take advantage of their new knowl- 
edge before Columbus, obtaining a fleet from Queen Isabella, 
had tried his plan of reaching Asia by sailing directly west. 
In October, 1492, he reached the islands which he believed lay 
off the coast of Asia. Many years later, men learned that he 
had simply run upon a great barrier continent, and that it was 
more difficult to reach Asia by sailing west than by sailing 
around Africa. In 1498 the Portuguese under Vasco da Gam a 
reached India, and in 1511 had begun to establish themselves 
in the much-coveted Spice Islands, two years before the 
Spaniard, Balboa, had seen the Pacific Ocean. It was only in 
1520 that Magellan, a Portuguese sailor, who had been in 
Malacca, but who had entered the Spanish service, succeeded 
in sailing westward into the Pacific through the straits which 
now bear his name. In March, 1521, he discovered for Spain 
the Philippine Islands. Nevertheless, the Spaniards had found 
in America lands far more important. The conquests of Cortez 
and Pizarro opened to them the rich mines of Mexico and Peru. 
The English, who, later, were to dispossess them of much of 
this territory, in 1497 touched the coast of America in a 
voyage conducted by an Italian named John Cabot. 



SUMMARY 181 

192. An Era of Change. — Had the men of the day been 
able to group together and understand fully all the wonderful 
things that were happening, it would have seemed that the 
sixteenth century was opening with greater promise than any of 
its predecessors. At last the veil that had shrouded the " Sea 
of Darkness " had been lifted ; the Indies had been reached, and 
their rich spices and fabrics could be brought directly to the 
ports of Europe. The ancient world had been rediscovered 
and its treasures of knowledge and of literature, no longer 
hidden in forgotten piles of manuscripts, could be placed in 
printed volumes upon the student's table. Scholars like Eras- 
mus were busy exploring these writings, explaining carefully 
each passage, and editing correct editions. Painters, sculptors, 
and architects, like Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, 
were beautifying Rome and Italy, and their fame was spread- 
ing northward to quicken the genius of Germans, Englishmen, 
Frenchmen, and Spaniards. Unhappily other things also were 
taking place. The rivalries of princes or cities were filling 
Europe with wars as disastrous as those of the Middle Ages. 
The evil customs in the Church were uncorrected, and this at 
a time when, emboldened by the new spirit of inquiry, men 
were likely to question the teachings of the Church and to 
rind its moral discipline burdensome. 



SUMMARY 

I. Renaissance. — 1. Earlier revivals: (a) at Charlemagne's court; 
(6) Saracen civilization ; (c) rise of universities ; (d) failure of 
the schoolmen as investigators ; (e) success of church builders. 
2. Writers and students : (a) great books of the fourteenth 
century ; (b) work of Petrarch ; (c) influence of Italian princes 
and popes ; (d) renewed study of Greek ; (e) German interest 
in religious studies. 3. Inventors and discoverers: (a) astro- 
nomical instruments ; (6) art of printing ; (c) famous printers, 
influence of books ; (d) Marco Polo's travels ; (e) voyagers of 
Prince Henry ; (/) the Portuguese and Spanish voyages to the 
Indies. 



182 THE RENAISSANCE 

II. Triumph of Monarchy in France, England, and Spain. — 1. France: 
(«) kings gain right to levy regular taxes, organize a standing 
army ; (b) Louis XI. and Charles of Burgundy ; (c) fiefs added 
to France. 2. England : (a) rivalries for the crown ; (&) reasons 
for power of Henry VII. 3. Spain : (a) union of Castile and 
Aragon ; (6) reorganization of government by Ferdinand and 
Isabella ; (c) conquest of Granada ; (d) acquisition of Naples. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1374. End of Petrarch's career. 

1397. Chrysoloras begins to teach Greek at Florence. 

1419. Prince Henry begins his work as organizer of voyages. 

1474. Union of Castile and Aragon. 

1477. Death of Charles the Bold, ruin of Burgundian scheme. 

1485. Accession of Henry VII., first of the Tudors. 

r 1487. Diaz sails around Cape of Good Hope. 

I 1492. Conquest of Granada ; discovery of America. 

J 1511. The Portuguese in the Spice Islands. 

1 1519. Magellan begins his voyage round the world. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading: Adams, Civilization, Ch. 15; Bryce, Ch. 17; 
Symonds, Short History of the Italian Renaissance (a condensa- 
tion by Alfred Pearson of Symonds's seven volumes) ; Cambridge- 
Modern History, Vol. I.; Whitcomb, Source Books of the Italian 
and German Renaissance. 

Paragraphs : — 

174. The Universities : Laurie, Compayre\ and Rashdall. For Fred- 

erick and the university of Bologna, see 132 ; for Wycliffe and 
Huss, see 165, 168. 

175. The Schoolmen : Robinson, pp. 455-461 ; Emerton, Mediceval 

Europe, Ch. 13. 

176. Architecture : Sturgis, 365-473, richly illustrated. 

178. Petrarch : many selections from his writings in Petrarch, by 

Robinson and Rolfe ; a brief selection in Whitcomb, Italian 
Renaissance, pp. 8-15. 

179. Renaissance in Italy : Symonds, Short History, Chs. 1, 7 ; general 

characteristics illustrated in selections given by Robinson in 
Ch. 22. See also selections in Whitcomb. 
181. Papal Library : Whitcomb, 63-64. 



SUMMARY 183 

Paragraphs : — 

182. Renaissance in Germany: Beard, Luther, Ch. 3; Cambridge 
Modern History, Ch. I. ; Jannsen, Vol. I. ; Henderson, Short 
History of Germany, Ch. 10 ; Munroe ; for selections from writ- 
ings, see Whitcomb, German Renaissance and Select Colloquies 
of Erasmus. 

183-184. Printing: see Camb. Mod. Hist., Vol. L, pp. 633-634, 639- 
641. 

185, 191. Voyages: Camb. Mod. Hist., Ch. I. ; Bourne; Fiske, Vol. I.; 
Avery, Vol. I. ; Beazley. 

187. Unification of France: Camb. Mod. Hist., Vol. I., Ch. 12. 

189. War of the Roses : Gardiner, 320-343 ; selections in Kendall, 

Ch. 7 ; in Durham ; for genealogy, see below. 

190. Spain: Cheyney or Burke, II., 26-42. 

Additional Reading : Laurie, Rise of the Universities ; Compayre\ 
Abelard; Rashdall, TJie Universities of Europe in the Middle 
Ages, 3 vols. ; Jannsen, History of the German People at the 
Close of the Middle Ages, 6 vols. ; Munroe, Thomas Platter and 
the Educational Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century; Fiske, 
Discovery of America, 2 vols. ; Bourne (E. G.), Spain in America; 
Avery, History of the United States ; Ramsay, York and Lan- 
caster ; Cheyney, The European Background; Hume, Spain, 
1479-1788; Grant, The French lUonarchy, 1494-1789, 2 vols.; 
Burckhardt, Renaissance in Italy ; Brown, The Venetian Repub- 
lic; Oliphant, Makers of Florence ; Beazley, Prince Henry the 
Navigator. 

To ILLUSTRATE DISPUTE ABOUT THE ENGLISH CROWN AND THE WARS OF 

the Roses (York, White, and Lancaster, Red) 

Edward III., t 1377 

I 

I ~~ i i 1 

Black Prince Lionel John {Lancaster) Edmund ( York) 

Richard II., (1) | ' 1 Richard 

deposed, 1399 | Henry IV., 1 1413 (1) (married Anne) 

| Henry V. 

Anne = Richard t 1422 (2) 

| (York) | 

(1) Henry VI. 

j 1 1471 Margaret = Edmund 

| | Tudor 
Edward IV., 1 1483 Richard III., 
( t 1485 

Edward V. Richard Elizabeth, married to Henry VII. 1485-1509 

( The miirdered \ 

princes) Henry VIII., 1 1547 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 

193. A Greater Schism. — For Christians to differ with one 
another about matters of belief or about the organization of 
the Church was not a new thing in the sixteenth century. For 
more than eight hundred years the Greek and Roman Chris- 
tians had looked upon each other as schismatics and heretics. 
In the East there were several Churches which agreed with 
neither. Even in the Roman Church there had been a schism, 
and the nations had been grouped behind rival popes. The 
West had also seen parliaments or kings summarily cut off 
privileges which the popes had acquired. The English parlia- 
ment had done this by the statutes of Provisors and Praemunire, 
and the French king, Charles VII., had accomplished the same 
thing by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. Only Germany, 
of the three great nations, had failed to restrain the papal 
demands because the power of the emperor was practically 
gone. Nevertheless, to the Christians of the day heresy and 
schism were hateful wrongs. They could not imagine how 
there could be more than one f;rue Church. When revolution 
came, all men, even the revolutionists, shrank from the danger 
of permanently dividing the Church and from countenancing 
the thought that Christians could rightly differ upon important 
doctrines. It was only after a long and irreconcilable conflict 
that a temporary compromise was agreed upon, whereby certain 
countries or certain classes of men were allowed to worship in 
ways not approved by custom, to refuse allegiance to the pope, 
and to hold beliefs that had been branded as heretical. This 
had taken place in all western Europe north of the Alps and 

184 



THE CHURCH IN PERIL 185 

the Pyrenees by 1561, and the event marked the rain of the 
mediaeval Church. 

194. The Church in Peril. — Neither the decisions of the 
" reforming" councils of Constance and Basel nor the thorough- 
going fashion in which the English and the French governments 
had cut off its privileges had convinced the papacy that the 
time had come for a reorganization of its system of administer- 
ing the affairs of the Church. It was not easy to distinguish 
between things upon which the popes must insist as necessary 
to the exercise of a wise authority and things which encroached 
upon the rights of others. The Roman officials who admin- 
istered the affairs of the papacy did not have a reputation for 
justice and economy. Many of them were accused of charging 
extortionate fees and of taking bribes. To make the matter 
worse, the popes, like Alexander VI., in the latter part of the 
fifteenth century, in their struggle to defend their power over 
the States of the Church, acted with the same unscrupulous 
violence as did other Italian princes. 

195. The Concordat. — Upon the eve of revolution the 
papacy seemed still unconscious of the danger, and in a star- 
tling instance ignored the convictions of many earnest church- 
men. The French king, Francis I., had won the battle of 
Marignano in 1515, and with it had recovered the duchy of 
Milan. Northern Italy was at his feet. In order to strengthen 
his influence in Italian politics Francis needed the pope as his 
ally, and Pope Leo was determined to obtain the revocation of 
the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, which checked the papal 
authority in France. The result was the Concordat or agree- 
ment of Bologna by which the freedom of Church elections, 
once championed by the popes themselves, was taken away, 
and thereafter the king was to nominate to archbishoprics, 
bishoprics, and abbeys, while the pope was to institute or 
install the candidates. Immediately afterward the king per- 
mitted the pope to begin again the collection of the annats. 

196. Erasmus. — North of the Alps several influential church- 
men, who were also lovers of the new learning, attempted by 



186 



THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 




their writings and teachings to correct the evils which threat- 
ened the Church and to strengthen the religious feeling of 
intelligent men. The most famous of the group was Erasmus, 
a native of Rotterdam, who had taught Greek at Cambridge, 

England, but who lived much at 
Paris, and whose later years were 
to be spent in Basel, near his 
friend, the printer Froben. Eras- 
mus wrote a book called the Praise 
of Folly, in which Folly herself 
argued for all the wrong and 
unreasonable things in the world 
in such a way as to set every- 
body to laughing at them. Lazy 
monks and luxury-loving bishops 
got their full share of such shafts 
and found it difficult to join in 
the laughter. But Erasmus had 
more serious work to do. His 
most important task was a good 
edition of the Greek text of the 
New Testament. Hitherto, in 
their studies, scholars had been 
obliged to use chiefly the Vul- 
gate, the translation into Latin 
by St. Jerome. In order that 
Biblical scholarship might have 
a sound basis, the Greek text 
must be corrected by a compari- 
son of all the ancient manuscripts 
that could be found. Erasmus 
published his first edition in 1516, the year of the Concordat. 
Among his other tasks was the publication of the writings 
of early teachers of the Church like St. Augustine and Origen. 
Through these it was possible to gain a clearer idea how grad- 
ual had been the formation of the doctrines of the Church, 



Erasmus. 

The foremost scholar and literary 
man of his day. Born at Rotter- 
dam about 1467. Though he be- 
came a monk, he was permitted 
to reside outside the monastery 
after 1490. Studied at the univer- 
sity of Paris, taught at the univer- 
sity of Cambridge. Had many 
influential patrons, even at Rome. 
Died at Basel in 1536. In addition 
to his work on the Greek text of the 
New Testament, his best known 
writings are the Adages selected 
from classical writers, the Collo- 
quies or dialogues on various sub- 
jects, and the Praise of Folly. 



INDULGENCES 187 

and to contrast early Christianity with the Christianity 
that the schoolmen had taught. One of Erasmus's English 
friends, John Colet, who had studied in Italy, was at this time 
lecturing at Oxford on St. Paul's Epistles, alarming some of 
his hearers by his manner of explaining passages with a vigor 
and freshness quite unlike the scholastic method. In Paris, 
Jacques Lefevre, a great mathematician, had also turned 
eagerly to the study of the Bible, in which, rather than in 
cumbrous theological works, was to be found, he said, the true 
doctrine of Christ. In his commentary upon St. Paul's Epis- 
tles, published in 1512, he declared that pilgrimages and pen- 
ances could not give men merit before God, and that the true 
way was through the union of the trusting soul to Christ. How 
far such scholars could carry peaceful reform there was little 
opportunity to see, for almost immediately a revolution broke 
out in Germany which threw their work into the background. 
197. Indulgences. — Had this revolution been brought on 
by the old trouble about taxes and appointments it would not 
have been surprising. Whatever the underlying causes, the 
occasion was a controversy over the way the wrong-doer must 
be restored to good standing in the Church and to the favor of 
God. A hearty repentance had not seemed enough ; it was 
necessary that the contrite sinner " do works meet for repent- 
ance." In the early Church men had been compelled to hum- 
ble themselves, to wear a penitent's robe, or do something 
which should show the majesty of the broken law. Gradu- 
ally, for one reason or another, penitents were " indulged " or 
freed from a portion of such punishment or penance. Pen- 
ances were also changed, so that fines in money, after the 
manner of German penalties for crimes, were substituted for 
the old, humiliating penances. Such fines were really indul- 
gences, for they shortened the time of penance or took its 
place. After Christians came to believe in purgatory, a place 
of purifying punishment for souls finally to be received into 
paradise, it was thought that the period of suffering might be 
shortened through an indulgence or pardon, and that the letter 



188 



THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 




of the law of penalties might be satisfied by placing to the 
credit of needy souls some of the good works which holy men 
and women had performed in excess of the law's requirements. 
Although the greater teachers of the Church held that repent- 
ance, confession, and the priest's formal declaration of forgive- 
ness or absolution must precede the purchase of an indulgence, 
if this were to be efficacious, others 
argued that the merit of the indulgence 
itself could make up for a lack of real 
sorrow for sin and could remove the 
guilt. Sensitive souls were tormented 
by the fear that they had not purchased 
a sufficient indulgence. The practice 
was fast becoming a scandal and at last 
brought on a quarrel which rent the 
Church. 

198. Luther (1483-1546) and Indul- 
gences. — It happened in this way. Pope 
Julius II. had begun the rebuilding of 
St. Peter's church at Rome upon the 
plans of the architect Bramante. When 
Julius died in 1513, the work languished. 
Pope Leo, in order to procure money, 
provided for a special issue of indul- 
gences. The German states were di- 
vided into three fields, and the disposal 
of the indulgences in one was conceded 
to the archbishop of Mainz, who when 
he had become archbishop had paid the papal court a fee of 
thirty thousand ducats, borrowing the sum from an Augsburg 
banking house. He received permission to retain half of the 
proceeds of the issue in order that he might repay the loan. 
Frederick, the elector of Saxony, refused to allow Tetzel, the 
chief of the preachers, to enter his domains. Tetzel, however, 
preached on the borders of Saxony, so that the elector's people 
flocked thither to purchase indulgences. This led Dr. Martin 



Martin Luther. 

Born at Eisleben, 1483. 
Entered Augustinian mon- 
astery at Erfurt. In 
1508 became professor of 
philosophy at the uni- 
versity of Wittenberg. 
Visited Rome in 1510. 
Completed his translation 
of the New Testament in 
1522 and of the whole Bi- 
ble in 1532. Died, 1546. 



LUTHER AND THE POPE 189 

Luther, a monk and professor of philosophy in the new university 
of Wittenberg, to post conspicuously, in October, 1517, ninety- 
five theses or propositions which he offered to prove, tending 
to show that confidence in indulgences was dangerous. Luther 
had no intention of attacking the pope or of teaching heresy. 
He boldly expressed what many other good churchmen said 
more quietly. Like Colet and Lefevre he had come to believe 
that the heavy consciousness of guilt could not be removed by 
" good works," and that the soul could shake itself clear by a 
bold act of faith in God's promises. 

199. Luther and the Pope. — At first Pope Leo thought the 
controversy was an affair between two kinds of monks, for 
Luther was an Augustinian, while Tetzel was a Dominican. 
As the controversy became more excited Luther's own opin- 
ions changed and he began to criticise the teachings of the 
Church and to find fault with its organization. He denied 
that there was any difference between the priest and the ordi- 
nary Christian save the office he held, and called upon the 
" Christian Nobles of the German Nation " to take the reform 
of the Church into their own hands. A little later he declared 
that the Church was in bondage to Rome, a new " Babylonian 
Captivity," and attacked those beliefs and forms of worship 
which gave the priesthood their power, that is to say, the 
belief that in the mass, at the word of the priest, the substance 
of the bread and wine is changed into the body and blood of 
Christ and is offered in sacrifice as a renewed atonement. 
Conservative men now looked upon Luther as a heretic and 
drew back, but thousands of other Germans saw in him a 
dauntless champion of German rights against foreign oppres- 
sion. Whether he would be arrested and punished as a heretic 
depended upon the German princes, and partly, also, upon how 
busy men were with other matters. His defiant attitude was 
clear, for when the pope excommunicated him in 1520, he 
publicly burned the papal bull. 

200. Under the Ban. — In 1519, before the controversy had 
reached its height, the emperor Maximilian died, and his grand- 



190 



THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 



son, Charles, already duke of Burgundy and king of Spain, 
was chosen emperor. This choice made Charles the lifelong 
antagonist of Francis I. of France, chiefly because in Ger- 
many, in the Netherlands, in Burgundy, in Italy, in Spain, 
the ambitions of Francis were thwarted by Charles. More- 
over, Charles possessed so much power that it seemed likely 

he would make of the Holy Ro- 
man Empire a Roman reality of 
the ancient type. For the time 
Pope Leo feared the French more 
than he did Charles, for Francis 
was strong in northern Italy, 
and Charles only desired to be. 
Meanwhile, in 1521, Charles 
summoned at Worms a diet of 
the electors, the princes, and 
the representatives of the cities. 
Luther was called before it and 
commanded to recant his errors. 
He refused to do so unless what 
he had written should be proved 
wrong from the Scriptures and 
by clear reasoning. Although 
this was an appeal from the 
authority of the Church and of 
imperial assemblies to his own 
individual judgment, the mem- 
bers of the diet were reluctant 
to condemn him, for his name had become a battle-cry among 
the Germans. It was only after a part of the princes had 
gone that he was placed under the ban of the Empire. As 
the emperor had given him a safe-conduct he had been allowed 
to go unmolested. On the road to Wittenberg he was spirited 
away to Wartburg Castle by order of the elector of Saxony, 
so that he might be safe until the storm blew over. Charles 
was too busy to enforce the ban, for his first war with Francis 




Charles V. 

.Born at Ghent in 1500, inherited the 
Netherlands in 1506, became king 
of Spain in 1516, emperor of the 
German-Roman Empire in 1519. 
Abdicated in 1556. Died at the 
monastery of Ynste, Spain, in 1558. 



REVOLT OF THE PEASANTS 191 

had already begun. Pope Leo lived only long enough to know 
that the French power in northern Italy was broken. 

201. After the Diet — It would have been difficult for 
Charles to carry out the decree of the diet, for the princes 
and the Free or independent cities were jealous of their privi- 
leges and would not have endured anything that looked like a 
vigorous act of imperial power. Little was done to restrain 
Luther and his followers until 1529, for no sooner had the 
first war with France ended than another broke out. Luther 
had more to fear from the violence of his own partisans than 
from the emperor. He had not been in the Wartburg long 
before some of his Wittenberg friends rudely replaced the cus- 
tomary forms of worship by others more in accord with what 
he had seemed to them to teach in his writings and speeches. 
He left his retreat, hurried back to Wittenberg, and restored 
order. It was only gradually that he reorganized the Church 
service in agreement with his new notions of Christian wor- 
ship.' Meanwhile he completed his translation of the Bible 
into German, which, multiplied upon a hundred presses, was 
read everywhere. 

202. Revolt of the Peasants. — Luther's troubles were not 
ended. His defiance of Church authority, his declaration that 
all Christians were brothers, resounded ominously among the 
peasants of southern Germany, ground down as the French 
and English peasants had been in the eleventh century. 
From time to time, groups of them had revolted, and in 1524 
one of these revolts grew into a general insurrection. In their 
formal demands they asked that they be released from serf- 
dom " as true Christians unless it could be proved from the 
Gospel " that they were serfs. Luther had little real sympathy 
with the peasants, although he was peasant born. He saw 
that his cause was ruined if he countenanced rebellion against 
the nobles. Consequently he denounced the unhappy peasants, 
urging the princes to cut them down like mad dogs. The 
insurrection was drowned in blood as had been the French 
Jacquerie and the English Peasants' Revolt. The condition 



192 THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 

of the peasants became worse than before, and in their bitter- 
ness they turned from Luther. In the towns like Nuremberg, 
Strasburg, Magdeburg, and Ltibeck, and among princes like 
the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse, the triumph 
of Luther's views became more certain. In some cases, by the 
act of the magistrates or the princes, the newer forms of wor- 
ship replaced the old. Almost everywhere it was the clergy 
themselves who took the lead. Monasteries were closed and 
Church property was administered by the government. The 
grand master of the Teutonic Order changed its Prussian 
lands into a duchy, which two centuries later became the king- 
dom of Prussia. Although such changes seemed to show that 
the Lutherans would not be reconciled to the Church, none 
believed that another Church was to be created, and that west- 
ern Christendom was to be rent by schism. 

203. Reform in Other Lands. — Luther's influence did not 
stop at the borders of Germany. His teachings were soon 
accepted in Denmark and Sweden. The work of Lefevre 
was probably more hindered than helped by the controversy. 
He looked for a peaceful change in the Church itself. As soon 
as his friends saw how far Luther was going, some of them 
drew back in fear, others became such eager partisans of 
change that they thought Lefevre too timid a reformer. The 
theologians of the university of Paris, in alarm, united with 
the judges in the parlement to punish the new heresies, and 
caused several men to be burned at the stake. In England 
there were few Lollards left, but their memory was not dead, 
nor had Wycliffe's teachings been wholly forgotten. This 
gave Luther's views a chance to be heard. Henry VIII., who 
esteemed himself a great theologian, undertook to refute 
Luther's errors, and the pope conferred upon him the title, 
" Defender of the Faith." In the Netherlands, also, Lutherans 
appeared, and by order of Charles they were seized and hurried 
to the stake. 

204. Switzerland. — In Switzerland reform found a cham- 
pion almost as great as Luther. This was Ulrich Zwingli, who 



THE HUMANISTS 193 

became priest in the cathedral church of Zurich in 1518. 
He had been an eager student of Paul's Epistles, the Greek 
text of which he had copied from Erasmus's edition that he 
might have it in more convenient form. Almost from the first 
he based his preaching wholly on the Scriptures. As his views 
gradually changed, he carried the town magistrates with him, so 
that a new order of things was quietly introduced. He went 
much farther than Luther. Although Luther did not believe 
in transubstantiation or the change of the substance of the bread 
and wine into the body and blood of Christ, he did believe 
that the body of Christ was present in the consecrated bread and 
wine. Zwingli, on the contrary, taught that the Lord's Supper 
was only a commemorative feast. Luther thought this view 
so unchristian that he would hardly recognize Zwingli as a 
Christian brother. 

205. The Humanists. — It is not surprising that in the 
confusion of all these discordant cries the Humanists were 
nearly lost sight of. Many of them were in favor of a reform 
like that advocated by Lef evre. Erasmus steadily continued 
his work of editing, refusing to take sides in the conflict. 
The more violent reformers called him a timorous time server^ 
while the theologians at Paris accused his writings of being 
the root of all the ill. 

206. Charles, Francis, the Pope, the Protestants. — In the 
war with Charles V., Francis I. had been captured in Italy and 
taken to Spain. At Madrid, early in 1526, he was forced to 
sign a humiliating treaty in order to procure his release. As 
Charles was now powerful in northern Italy, the new Medicean 
pope, Clement VII., had the same reason to oppose him that 
Leo had to oppose Francis. The peace of Madrid proved to be 
only a truce. This was one reason why the Lutherans were 
not disturbed. There was still another. In an invasion of 
Hungary the Turks had just killed the king of Hungary and 
Bohemia at the battle of Mohacs. Ferdinand, the brother of 
Charles, had married the sister of the late king and claimed 
the throne. Charles had already given him the Hapsburg ter- 



194 



THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 



ritories of their grandfather, Maximilian. Ferdinand was suc- 
cessful, for the diets of both Hungary and Bohemia chose him 
king. From this time forward the group of possessions over 
which the Hapsburgs still rule was permanently formed. In 
his new war Charles was more triumphant than he wished, 
for his army, under the constable Bourbon, a traitor to Francis, 
stormed Kome and put it to a sack worse than that centuries 
before by the Goths and the Vandals. Pope Clement and 
Francis were obliged to make peace. Charles seized the op- 
portunity to check the spread 
of Lutheran opinions and to 
cause suits to be made in the 
imperial courts to recover 
Church prpperty which had 
been taken by the princes and 
cities. This attempt led to a 
vigorous protest at the diet of 
Spires in 1529, made by the 
elector of Saxony and the 
landgrave of Hesse, supported 
by fourteen Free cities, an act 
which gave the name Protes- 
tant to the Lutheran party. 

207. Henry VIII. breaks 
with the Papacy. — Charles 
was troubled by another diffi- 
culty His aunt, Catherine, 
was the wife of Henry VIII. 
of England. Unfortunately 
all her children, save one 
daughter, had died. Henry was afraid that the old quarrel 
about the succession to the crown would begin again if he had 
no sons. He demanded that Pope Clement annul the marriage 
as unlawful, because Catherine had been his brother's widow. 
He was urgent about the matter, as he had become enamoured 
of one of the court ladies. The pope did not dare to comply, 




Henry VIII. 

Son of Henry VII. and of Elizabeth, 
daughter of Edward IV. Born at 
Greenwich, 1491 ; died at Westmin- 
ster, 1547. Given the title "Defender 
of the Faith " by Leo X. for his book 
against Luther in 1521. Declared 
by act of parliament in 1534 "su- 
preme head" of the English Church. 



FBANCIS AND THE REFORMERS 195 

for Charles and Ferdinand swore they would lose their crowns 
rather than endure such an insult.. Henry's revenge was to 
allow parliament, from 1529 to 1534, to pass laws cutting off 
Church privileges, the annats, the right of appeal to Rome, 
and making Henry himself head of the English Church. He 
did not intend to destroy the unity of the " Faith," of which 
he had become the " Defender " ; but it was difficult for him 
to carry on his quarrel with the pope without the aid of men 
who were inclined more and more to Lutheran opinions. In 
some respects Henry went as far as had the German princes. 
He abolished all the monasteries, — first the smaller and then 
the larger ones, — and either gave or sold their lands to men 
whom he favored. 

208. Diet of Augsburg. — In 1530 Charles thought himself 
strong enough to compel obedience in Germany, and, with this 
in view, he summoned another diet at Augsburg. There the 
Lutherans were allowed to read a creed, or confession, which 
Melanchthon had drawn up in such a way as to give the least 
possible offence to the Church leaders. Charles would listen 
to no compromise, and gave the Protestants six months to 
submit. It was nearly seventeen years before he found leisure 
to carry out this threat. The same old troubles, the Turks 
and the French, constantly thwarted him. 

209. Francis and the Reformers. — Francis I. had protected 
the disciples of Lefevre from the attacks of the university and 
from the courts, but the disasters of his wars so weakened him 
that it would have been dangerous to carry such a policy too 
far. Moreover, he sympathized with them chiefly because 
they were also Humanists, for- their notions of Christian mo- 
rality were too severe for monarchs of his type. When the 
partisans of reform began to tear down images and to placard 
denunciations of the mass, Francis was enraged, and joined 
heartily in the work of suppression. Finally, about the time 
when Henry VIII. had broken with the papacy, Francis ceased 
to parley with the reformers. It was just at this time, also, that 
the French reformers were to receive a leader and organizer. 



196 



THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 



210. Calvin, 1509-1564. — John Calvin was not only the 
leader to whom the French reformers looked for instruction and 
guidance, he was also to exert a more permanent influence out- 
side France than any other Frenchman that ever lived. He was 
the founder of the " Reformed " Churches along the Rhine and 
in Holland. Through his influence with the English religious 




Chateau of Chenonceaux. 

One of the most beautiful of the chateaux built in France during the 
Renaissance. It is situated on the Cher, a river which flows into the Loire 
near Tours. The principal structure at the left was completed in 1517. 

leaders, the English Puritans, and their children in New Eng- 
land, regarded him as their teacher. Since he was born in 
1509, he was still a boy when echoes of the Lutheran revolt 
began to stir France. As a student at Paris and other French 
universities, he gradually came to believe like Lefevre and his 
friends. It was about this time that the placards against the 
mass, posted by hot-headed fanatics even on the doors of the 
king's bedchamber, drew down the royal vengeance on all whom 
the Church branded as heretics. Calvin took refuge in Basel, 



CALVIN 



197 



and afterward was persuaded by one of Lefevre's disciples, 
now an ardent Protestant, to aid him in reforming Geneva, 
which had driven away its bishop and had abolished the mass. 
Calvin had already in 1535 published his Institutes of the Chris- 
tian Religion, in which he interpreted anew the Christian faith 
and explained how the Church should be ruled. After a bitter 
struggle his power at Geneva 
became unassailable, and he 
transformed the city into the 
" Rome of Protestantism. " 
He declared, as strongly as 
did Luther, that in God's 
sight a man is just only be- 
cause he has received from 
God the gift of faith, but he 
also held that whether a 
man shall receive this divine 
gift was determined before 
the very foundation of the 
world. Those who felt as- 
sured that they had been so 
chosen gained from this a 
dignity and courage in com- 
parison with which ordinary 
earthly dignities were of lit- 
tle importance. It was nat- 
ural that such men should 
think themselves capable of 
managing the Church, and even the State. In this way Cal- 
vinism was a force making for democracy and for liberty, 
although Calvin himself would allow no liberty to those who 
differed with him. He had occupied his commanding position 
in Geneva about twenty years, and had thoroughly established 
his system of Church administration, when the first attempt 
was made in France to organize the reformed churches into a 
single body. In spite of the dangers, for Henry II., who had 




John Calvin. 

Born at Noyon, Picardy, France, in 
1509. Educated at the universities of 
Paris, Orleans, and Bourges. Retired 
to Basel in 1534 to escape persecu- 
tion. First residence in Geneva, 1536- 
1538. Returned in 1541 ; died in 1564. 



198 THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 

succeeded his father Francis in 1547, was a greater persecutor 
than his father had been, the delegates of fifty churches met 
in Paris, in 1559, and drew up a confession of faith and a plan 
of management. 

211. Kef ormation in England. — Meanwhile the situation in 
Germany and in England had greatly changed. Henry VIII. 
had died in 1547, leaving a son, Edward VI., only ten years 
old. The councillors of the young king, and among them 
Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, abandoned the policy of 
King Henry, so that the English Church was not only inde- 
pendent of the pope but became also Protestant in its creed 
and its forms of worship. It was at this time that the 
Prayer Book was arranged, and the creed was drawn up 
which, with slight changes, was to become the Thirty-nine 
Articles. 

212. War and Compromise in Germany. — In Germany the 
reformers seemed hopelessly ruined. Charles V. had never 
given up his determination to put down the Lutheran heresy, 
but he could do nothing until 1547. Luther had died the year 
before. John Frederick, the elector of Saxony, and Philip, the 
landgrave of Hesse, were still the political leaders among the 
Lutherans united in the Schmalkaldic League. Charles took 
advantage of the enmity between the elector and his relative 
Maurice, duke of Saxony, and promised Maurice the position 
of elector in case the League was conquered. The campaign 
was decided in one battle, but the matter did not end there. 
Charles attempted to arrange a compromise until everything 
should be settled in a general council of the Church. This 
compromise suited no one, least of all Maurice, who was 
embittered by the way Charles had treated his father-in-law, 
the landgrave of Hesse. The result was an uprising in 1552, 
led by Maurice and assisted by Henry II. of France, who did 
not hate the Lutherans so much that he was reluctant to assist 
them in crippling his father's old enemy. Henry was allowed 
to occupy Metz, Toul, and Verdun, cities which were then in 
the German Empire, although the inhabitants spoke French. 



REACTION IN ENGLAND 199 

The allies were successful, and Charles himself barely escaped 
capture. His defeat led first to the Peace of Passau and a 
little later, in 1555, to the " Religious Settlement," or the 
Peace of Augsburg. This gave to the princes, or, in the case of 
cities, to the government, the right to settle whether they and 
their subjects should be Lutherans or should adhere to the old 
Church. If a Church prince, bishop or abbot, should become 
a Lutheran, he must resign his position. It was also decided 
that all Church property that had been taken by princes before 
1552 should not be reclaimed by the Church, but that no more 
should be so seized or secularized. Evidently such a settle- 
ment gave to the princes much more power than they had 
ever had before. Some persons said that instead of a pope 
of the old sort they had now got themselves a " Caesar-pope." 
The next year Charles V., aged before his time, withdrew to 
a Spanish monastery, leaving nearly all his lands to his son 
Philip. His brother Ferdinand became emperor. 

213. Reaction in England. — In England also it depended 
upon the prince what the religion should be. After six years 
the young Edward died and his sister Mary, daughter of the 
unhappy Catherine, came to the throne. To her the reformers 
were doubly hateful, first because they had attacked her faith," 
but also because it was they who had helped annul her 
mother's marriage. As Edward's councillors found a parlia- 
ment to introduce the new beliefs and forms of worship, so 
Mary found another parliament to undo all this and make 
heresy a crime. In 1554 she took Philip of Spain, the son of 
Charles, as her husband. It seemed as if England was added 
to the forces fighting against the reformers everywhere, and 
this partly compensated for the emperor's disastrous defeat in 
Germany. But Mary disgusted Englishmen by causing such 
distinguished men as Archbishop Cranmer, Bishop Latimer, 
and Bishop Ridley to be burned at the stake. The love of 
personal liberty protected by law was greater in England than 
elsewhere. Mary's burnings were few in comparison with the 
holocausts in Spain, France, and the Netherlands; but they 



200 THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 

fixed upon her the hateful title of the " Bloody Queen." As 
her brother's death had changed the State religion, so her 
death in 1558, changed it back, for her sister Elizabeth, the 
daughter of Anne Boleyn, that court lady for whom Henry had 
repudiated Catherine, was as much bound to support the 
reformers as Mary the older Church. Upon the rightfulness 
of the divorce rested her claim to be lawful daughter of the 
king. No sooner had she mounted the throne than Elizabeth 
effected a " settlement " of religion. Although she tried to 
please both the reformers and those who still believed in the 
older worship, her parliament declared her supreme in Church 
as well as in State, and provided a legal form of worship to 
which everybody must conform. 

214. The End of the Middle Ages. — Even in France it had 
become necessary after the death of Henry II. to allow the re- 
formers to meet outside the walled towns. In Italy and Spain 
alone was the Church able to preserve its unity. The divisions 
of the western Church were fatal to the mediseval notion that 
all Christian men were united in one great commonwealth, the 
ordinary affairs of which were directed by the emperor while 
the pope guided its spiritual interests. From the failure of 
the Hohenstaufens to defend their imperial rights the Em- 
pire had never recovered. Kingdoms once considered hardly 
more than vassal states had become strong. Men were grouped 
as distinct nations. In one of these kingdoms a national 
Church was founded, and the Empire itself ceased to be wholly 
loyal to the papacy. These divisions meant another thing. 
Hitherto men had agreed that the Church had authority to 
guide the thoughts as well as discipline the conduct of the 
individual. The Humanists had discovered a method of study, 
much like that of the ancient Greeks, but they had tried to use 
it in harmony with the teachings of the Church. The re- 
formers set up other Churches, each claiming authority to 
teach, but each appealing more and more to reason, so that 
the judgment of the individual was fast becoming a rival of 
Church authority in controlling men. What remained un- 



SUMMARY 201 

settled was where the boundaries should be drawn in Europe 
between those faithful to the papacy and those who were 
reorganizing their religious life. 

SUMMARY 

I. Causes of the Reformation. — 1. Underlying causes: (a) need 
of reforms not secured by "reforming" councils of previous 
century ; (&) attitude toward reform revealed in Concordat of 
Bologna ; (c) Erasmus and other Humanists undermine traditional 
teaching ; (d) greater emphasis on the New Testament as source 
of religious knowledge. 2. Occasion : (a) penitential system j 
(6) danger of abuses ; (c) sale of indulgences in Germany. 
II. Lutheran Revolt. — 1. Luther : (a) his criticism of indulgences ; 
(6) gradual change in his religious views ; (c) excommunicated ; 
(d) his refusal to submit to Church authority ; (e) detaches his 
cause from cause of peasants ; (/) spread of his ideas among 
princes and in Free cities. 2. Things which helped save 
Lutherans from destruction : (a) protection of princes ; (6) atti- 
tude of princes and cities at Spires ; (c) League of Schmalkald ; 
(d) rivalries of Charles V. and the French kings ; (e) quarrel 
of Charles and the pope ; (/) opposition on part of princes to 
any strong assertion of imperial power. 

III. Reform in Other Lands. — 1. Lutheranism in Sweden and Den- 

mark, in Prussia. 2. Zwingli and the Zurich Reformation. 
3. England : («) quarrel of Henry VIII. and the pope ; (6) Eng- 
lish Church separated from Church of Rome. 4. France : 
(a) attitude of Francis I. ; (6) Calvin ; (c) social meaning of 
his teachings. 

IV. Beginnings of New Churches. — 1. Lutheran: (a) Luther's 

changes in manner of worship ; (6) his ideas on the Eucharist; 
(c) Augsburg Confession ; (d) disposition of Church territories 
and property in Germany. 2. Organization of Reformed Churches 
in France. 3. Reforms in England under Edward VI., Prayer 
Book, and Thirty-nine Articles. 
V. Defence of the Church. — 1. Attitude of Francis I. and Henry II. 
in France. 2. Charles V. in the Netherlands. 3. Germany : 
(a) victory of Charles over the Lutherans ; (&) his use of 
victory ; (c) revolt of Maurice of Saxony ; (d) religious settle- 
ment. 4. Catholic restoration in England : (a) means ; (&) dis- 
credited by severity ; (c) disappears with Mary. 



202 THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1516. Concordat of Bologna. Erasmus publishes his Greek Testament. 

1517. Protest of Luther against sale of indulgences. 
1519. Charles V. becomes emperor. 

1521. Diet at Worms ; Luther defies authority. 

1524. Outbreak of Peasants' Revolt in southern Germany. 

1529. Protest of Spires. 

1530. Augsburg Confession read at diet of Augsburg. 

1534. English Church separated from Church of Rome. 

1535. Calvin publishes his Institutes. 

1547. Defeat of the Lutherans by Charles V. Death of Henry VIII. and 
Francis I. 

1555. Religious Settlement in Germany by Peace of Augsburg. 

1556. Abdication of Charles V. 

1558. Elizabeth, queen of England. 

1559. Organization of Reformed Churches in France. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : in addition to the histories of the different states, 
Johnson's Europe in the Sixteenth Century ; Seebohm's Protes- 
tant Revolution ; Fisher's or Walker's Reformation ; longer treat- 
ments in Schaff's Christian Church, Vols. VI. and VII. ; Alzog, 
Vol. III. ; Jannsen, Vols. III.-VI. ; Cambridge Modern History, 
Vol. II. ; special chapters in Adams, Civilization, and in Bryce, 
Holy Roman Empire. 

Paragraphs : — 

194. Condition of the Church : see 162-165, 168, and references. 

196. 205. Erasmus : Emerton's or Froude's Erasmus, including many 

selections from writings and letters ; Seebohm's Oxford Re- 
formers ; on Greek Testament, Seebohm, Ch. 11. 

197. Indulgences : Cambridge Modem History, II., 124-128 ; Alzog, 

II., 795-799, 1056-1058. 

198. Luther's Protest: the occasion, Creighton, V., 56 ff . ; Jannsen, 

III., 78 ff. ; Luther's early experience, Beard, Ch. 4 ; the text of 
the Theses, Tr. and Rp., II.. No. 6, 5-12. 

199. Luther and the Pope : Fisher, Reformation, 96-102 ; Creighton, 

V., 69 ff. ; Jannsen, III., 97 ff. ; Luther's early writings in 
Bucheim, Luther's Primary Works. 

200. Charles V. ; the diet of Worms and its consequences, Johnson, 

158-160 ; Armstrong, I., Ch. 4 ; see genealogy below. 






SUMMARY 203 

Paragraphs : — 

201, 202. Revolution in Germany : Seebohm, Protestant Revolution, 
135-154 ; Camb. Mod. Hist., II., 177-192. 

203. Reform in Other Lands: in the north, Haiisser, Chs. 11, 12; 

Camb. Mod. Hist., II., Ch. 17 ; in France, Baird, I., Ch. 2. 

204. Switzerland : Fisher, 136-156 ; Camb. Mod. Hist., II., Ch. 10 ; 

Jackson, Zwingli. 

206, 208. The Wars: Johnson, 172-176, 181-200. 

207. Henry VIII. : Gardiner, Chs. 25, 26 ; Gairdner, Chs. 7-12, or his 

Ch. 13 in Camb. Mod. Hist. ; Colby, Nos. 56-58 ; Kendall, 47, 48. 
209, 210. Calvin: Baird, I., Ch. 6 ; Camb. Mod. Hist., Ch. 11. 

211, 213. Reform and Reaction in England : Camb. Mod. Hist., 

Chs. 14, 15 ; Gairdner ; Kendall, Nos. 49-50. 

212. Settlement in Germany : Johnson, 242-252 ; Bryce, Ch. 18 ; 

Jannsen, VI., 520 ff. 
214. France : Kitchin, II., 310. 

Additional Reading : Kanke, History of the Popes ; Baird, Rise of the 
Huguenots ; Froude, History of England, 12 vols. ; Gairdner, 
History of the English Church from Henry VIII. to Mary ; See- 
bohm, Oxford Reformers ; Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation; 
Haiisser, Period of the Reformation ; biographies of Luther, by 
Beard, Kostlin, Jacobs ; of Zwingli, by Jackson ; of Charles V., 
by Armstrong. 

Hapsburg, Burgundian, Spanish Relationships 

Charles, the Bold, 1 1477 
Duke of Burgundy 

Maximilian = Mary Ferdinand = Isabella 

(Aragon) (CasUle) 
t 1516 t 1504 

p, 1 1506 = Joan 

Charles V., king and emperor, 
abdicated 1556 

_1_ 

Philip II. Ferdinand 

(Spain) (The Empire) 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 

215. Peace or War within the Church. — Although the 
German religious peace of 1555 and the French edicts in favor 
of the Calvinists implied that it was no longer possible to keep 
the western Church united under the control of the papacy, 
these agreements did not mean that the religious conflicts 
were over. They did little more than mark the distance the 
revolt had advanced, filling the Protestants with confidence 
that they could do still more, and revealing to the Church 
leaders the extent of the ground that must be recovered. The 
papal party had not given up hope of bringing even England 
back to obedience. In the terms of the German " settlement" 
there was a spur to Lutheran ambition and to Catholic zeal. 
If the religion of the State must be that of the prince, it was 
all-important to win the princes. The fate of southern and 
western Germany, and of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, was 
at stake in the contest. In Prance it was impossible for the 
Calvinists to control the State, but they might win a secure 
position within it. England became more and more the cham- 
pion of Protestantism, while Spain attempted not only to destroy 
all heresies within her borders but sought to crush the French 
Calvinists and to conquer England. With her defeat came the 
loss of her Dutch provinces. 

216. The Council of Trent. — The Church had already re- 
covered from its early defeats, and, driven by the sense of 
danger, had seriously undertaken that " reform in head and 
members" which Christians had hitherto vainly demanded. 
A council had been opened at Trent, on the borders of Italy, 

204 



DIVISION OF TERRITORY 



205 




206 THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 

in 1545, but because of quarrels between the princes and the 
pope it was constantly interrupted and completed its work 
only in 15G3. For the first time all the doctrines of the 
Church were set forth briefly and plainly and were sanctioned 
by the pope. A sharp line was drawn between Church ortho- 
doxy and Protestant heresy. At the same time evils which 
had crept into the manner of obtaining or holding important 
Church offices were corrected. The council tried to check 
abuses in the practice of granting indulgences, though it in- 
sisted that the custom went back to the time of the apostles. 
A little later Pope Pius V. applied a more effective remedy by 
forbidding the grant of indulgences for raising money, and 
their distribution by special preachers or pardoners. 

217. The Papal Reformation. — When the princes demanded 
that the council should reform the " head," that is, the papacy, 
the council referred the matter to the papacy itself. This 
meant no postponement of the task, for after 1555 the popes 
were quite as earnest in reform as any of the members of the 
council. They corrected abuses, making Protestant reproaches 
lose point, and took measures to check the beginnings of 
heresy or to destroy it where it had not gained strength enough 
to be successfully defiant. One of their instruments was the 
Inquisition, or special court for the trial of heretics. Convic- 
tion before this court generally sent the accused to the stake. 
Another was the Index, an ever lengthening list of books which 
obedient Catholics were forbidden to read. Furthermore, no 
obedient Catholic could publish a book touching matters of 
religion without the permission of the Church. The most 
successful instrument of counter-reformation was a new reli- 
gious order, called the Society of Jesus. This order had at 
first been a little group of young men, gathered about Ignatius 
Loyola, a Spanish soldier, who had recovered from wounds 
received in battle only to enlist in a war against heresy. It 
was sanctioned by the papacy in 1540. The members obeyed 
their leaders and the pope so unhesitatingly that they became 
the most formidable body of defenders the Church had ever 



THE COUNCIL OF TRENT 



207 




The Council of Trent. 
From a painting in the Louvre ascribed to Titian. 



208 



THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 



had. They did not shut themselves up in monasteries, but 
went about preaching, founding schools, and teaching in the 
universities. It was largely due to their efforts that the 
Church was successful in winning back a part of its lost 
ground. 

218. Philip II., 1556-1598. — In this warfare the leader was 
the king of Spain, Philip II. Ferdinand, Charles's brother, 
who became emperor, was too anxious to conciliate his Protes- 
tant subjects to play the part. Although Philip did not put 

the interests of the Church 
before those of his kingdom, 
the cause for which he was 
fighting was, oftener than in 
his father's case, the cause of 
the Church. He held all the 
territories that Charles had di- 
rectly controlled, — Spain, Sic- 
ily, Naples, Milan, the county 
of Burgundy, and the Nether- 
lands. He also inherited from 
his father a vast empire in the 
Americas, which had already 
been conquered and organized 
by Cortez, Pizarro, and their 
followers. These lands were 
treated as if they belonged to 
the monarch himself, and their 
tribute in gold and silver could 
be used to pay his armies. 
No rival nation — except Por- 
tugal which owned Brazil — 
could send its traders or colo- 




Philip II. 

Born at Valladolid, 1527; died at the 
Escorial, the monastery -palace 27 
miles northwest of Madrid, 1598. 
Became duke of Milan in 1540, king 
of Naples and Sicily in 1554, ruler 
of the Netherlands in 1555, king of 
Spain and its dependencies in 1556. 



nists into the American seas to profit by the riches of the 
new world. To rule over so many states with different 
customs was a task too great for Philip. No king ever 
worked harder for the welfare of his states. Unfortunately, 



REACTION IN GERMANY 209 

he attempted to rule them all as if they were like Spain. 
After he returned to Spain from the Netherlands in 1559 
he never left the country. Every day he spent many hours 
at his desk reading the despatches of his agents or the 
reports of his councillors, and writing his own comments on 
the margins. He hated heresy so deeply that he declared he 
would prefer to lose all his provinces rather than leave it un- 
punished. His arrival in Spain and a little later his marriage 
were fittingly celebrated by autos da fe, or " acts of faith," at 
which many heretics were burned. His most pitiful victims 
were the Moriscoes or Moors of Granada, who since their forced 
conversion to Christianity by Ferdinand had turned out to be 
neither good Christians nor good Spaniards. Philip ordered 
them to abandon their national dress, change their customs, 
and learn to speak only Castilian. Such measures drove them 
to revolt, and for this the survivors of the new war of conquest 
were scattered through the other provinces of Spain. If 
Philip could so treat an industrious people living quietly in 
Spain, he was unlikely to be considerate of the privileges of the 
burghers of Flanders and Holland when they fell into heresy. 

219. Reaction in Germany. — Immediately after the council 
of Trent closed, the struggle for Germany was renewed with 
vigor. The Lutheran cause had been protected by princes like 
the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse ; the Catho- 
lics now found a champion in the duke of Bavaria. He in- 
trusted the education of the young to the Jesuits, caused 
Protestant books to be burned, literally in heaps, and drove 
Protestants from his lands. Immediate action was necessary, 
for the Bavarian assemblies or diets had recently demanded 
the abolition of fasts, permission to priests to marry, and the 
right of the laity to receive both the bread and the wine at the 
communion. Austria was in much the same condition. Even 
the territories of the bishops of Bamberg and Wurzburg, north 
of Bavaria, were filled with Lutherans. Some years later, in 
1582, the archbishop of Cologne, who had determined to marry, 
declared himself a Lutheran, in order to retain his position. 



210 



THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 



Had the Protestant princes given him timely support, he might 
have held Cologne for the Protestant party. Since three of 
the seven electors of the Empire — Saxony, Brandenburg, and 
the Rhenish Palatinate — were Protestants, such a change 
would have given a majority to the Protestants and might 
have led to the choice of a Lutheran emperor or to still greater 
concessions to the Lutherans and Calvinists. The vigorous 
measures of the duke of Bavaria, of the archbishop of Mainz, 
the bishop of Wurzburg, and other princes, followed by similar 

acts in Austria, threw a barrier 
before the southward exten- 
sion of Lutheranism. Baden 
was regained through the con- 
version of its young prince. As 
the Lutherans failed to obtain 
Cologne, that territory and the 
bishoprics of Paderborn and 
Miinster held the west for the 
Catholics. With the exception 
of the Palatinate, where Cal- 
vinistic views were held, the 
Protestants were gradually 
driven from the south, and 
lines of division were drawn 
which were to become perma- 
nent. 

220. The Struggle farther 
West. — While this German 
battle was slowly fought out, 
chiefly by Jesuit teachers and 
their Lutheran or Calvinistic 
adversaries, a far more dreadful struggle convulsed France, 
the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Spain. Elizabeth 
had ascended the English throne in 1558, just before 
the death of Henry II. of France. Scotland, the old ally of 
France, was ruled by a regent, Mary of Guise, widow of 




Queen Elizabeth. 

Daughter of Henry VIII. and 
Anne Boleyn. Born at Green- 
wich, September 7, 1533; died 
at Richmond, March 24, 1603. 



CIVIL WAR IN FRANCE 211 

James V. Her daughter, Mary Stuart, was married to the 
French dauphin, Francis. For this reason Philip quietly 
looked on when Elizabeth undid the work done by him 
and by Queen Mary of England to restore the authority of 
the pope in England. Any attempt to keep Elizabeth from 
the throne would help the only other near heir, Mary Stuart, 
great-granddaughter of Henry VIL, and if she became queen 
of England, as well as of France and Scotland, France, the 
enemy of his father's house, would become strong enough to 
lay covetous hands upon the Netherlands. The danger became 
all the greater when Henry II. died, for the new king, Fran- 
cis II., was completely under Mary Stuart's control. 

221. Scotland. — So far as Scotland was concerned the situ- 
ation changed, for, led by strong Calvinists like John Knox, 
the Scots were eager to throw off the control of the Church 
and organize a Church of their own. The nobles did not care 
much for the new doctrines ; but, like the English nobles, they 
hoped to be enriched with monastery lands, and ■ readily sup- 
ported Knox. In defiance of the regent they threw off the 
pope's authority and forbade persons to attend the mass, 
threatening them with death for the third offence. The 
regent could not hope to quell the rebels unless she received 
help from France. This the French readily sent, but Eliza- 
beth immediately interfered. It was too likely that the army 
which should put down the Scottish Protestants would be 
used to drive her from the English throne and seat Queen 
Mary Stuart upon it. She, accordingly, sent help to the Scot- 
tish lords in 1560, and, with them, compelled the French to 
leave Scotland and to acknowledge her as queen of England. 
Shortly afterward Francis II. died, and Mary Stuart was 
obliged to return to Scotland to govern an unruly kingdom. 

222. Civil War in France. — When Francis II. died, his 
brother Charles was too young to rule, and his mother, Cath- 
erine de' Medici, became regent. It was not possible to treat 
the Calvinists, who about this time began to be called Hugue- 
nots, as severely as her husband, Henry II., had treated them, 



212 THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 

for many powerful nobles were adopting the reformed doc- 
trines. Among these were the duke of Bourbon who had 
married the queen of Navarre, and his brother the prince of 
Conde. Gradually the real leader of the party came to be 
Coligny, a member of the noble Montmorency family, who 
with his two brothers, one of them a cardinal, had become 
" reformers." The chiefs of the Catholic party were the 
uncles of Mary Stuart, the duke of Guise and his brother 
the cardinal of Lorraine. Queen Catherine attempted to 
preserve her control of affairs by playing one party off against 
the other, but she satisfied neither the Huguenots nor their 
enemies. The government was not strong enough to treat 
both parties justly and with firmness, and so civil war was 
inevitable. The trouble began in 1562 with the massacre of 
some Huguenots who were gathered for worship in a granary 
at the little town of Vassy. As the news spread through the 
country the Huguenots rose everywhere and organized armies. 
Queen Elizabeth sent them assistance, and Philip aided the 
Guises. The Huguenots were not fighting against the king, 
but simply against the Guise party, although because this 
party controlled the government the Huguenots were nomi- 
nally rebels. Many nobles joined them in order to drive the 
Guises from power or in the hope of gaining something for 
themselves when peace was made. This was the first of a 
series of short wars. The first and second each lasted about six. 
months, the third nearly two years. Each peace was much 
like its predecessors, and gave the Huguenots the right to 
worship in one town of each bailiwick, as well as in the towns 
they held when the peace was signed. The last peace, made 
at St. Germain in 1570, gave them also four fortified cities in 
which the governors and the garrisons should be under their 
control. 

223. Trouble in the Netherlands. — While the Huguenots 
were fighting for toleration in France, they anxiously watched 
a similar struggle in the Netherlands. This name covered 
seventeen provinces which Charles Y. had either inherited 



REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 213 

from his Burgundian grandmother or which he had added 
during his long reign. They included what is now Holland 
and Belgium, and some territory since annexed to France. 
Charles had attempted to give them a single administration 
and to attach them to the Empire as the Circle of Burgundy. 
The provinces were stubborn in the defence of their ancient 
privileges, especially when Charles demanded money and men 
for his interminable wars. What aroused still greater resent- 
ment was the terrible zeal he showed in stamping out heresy. 
Edict after edict, " written in blood, not in ink," caused thou- 
sands to be beheaded, burned, or buried alive. The early 
Lutherans were decimated. Many of them fled to England 
or to Germany. Somewhat later Protestantism again began 
to make headway, coming from France under Calvinistic 
leadership. When Charles abdicated in 1556 he left a heavy 
burden of trouble for his son. At the stately ceremony by 
which he laid down his crown at Brussels he supported him- 
self upon the shoulder of the young William, prince of Orange, 
who was to be his son's greatest enemy, chiefly because Philip 
faithfully tried to continue Charles's cruel intolerance. 

224. Revolt of the Netherlands. — Under Philip the lot of 
the Netherlander grew worse, for he undertook to govern the 
country through favorites. When the older bishoprics were 
divided into smaller dioceses and given a better organization, 
they suspected that this would make the Inquisition only more 
dangerous. The nobles were irritated that their places of 
influence had been taken by upstarts. When remonstrances 
were not enough, in 1566, they made a solemn agreement to 
stand by one another, and presented their grievances to the 
regent, Philip's sister. Shortly afterward popular fury burst 
all bounds and mobs rushed into the churches, destroying win- 
dows, images of saints, sculptures, everything which symbolized 
the power responsible for their sufferings. Order was tem- 
porarily restored through a withdrawal of the hated edicts. 
Philip's vengeance was terrible. He sent a pitiless soldier, the 
duke of Alva, who executed distinguished noblemen and cov- 



214 THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 

ered the country with gibbets. At first this reign of terror 
was effective. A revolt, led by William of Orange, failed; 
but Alva increased the number of his enemies by establishing 
a tax, called the " tenth penny," upon all sales. This rendered 
business impossible and drove the merchants to support the 
discontented nobles. The revolt became general in 1572 when 
some refugees, who had maintained themselves on the sea with 
Queen Elizabeth's aid, seized Brill and held it against Philip's 
troops. The provinces of Holland and Zeeland declared for 
Prince William, who had raised another army. His brother, 
who had aided the Huguenots, led an army partly composed 
of them into the southern Netherlands. The chances of suc- 
cess seemed bright when terrible news came from Paris. 

225. St. Bartholomew, 1572. — Ever since the Peace of St. 
Germain, Coligny had been trying to persuade Charles IX. to 
take advantage of King Philip's difficulties in the Netherlands 
in order to win back some of the territory in Flanders and 
Artois which had once belonged to France. Coligny also had 
not forgiven the Spaniards for the destruction of his colony at 
Fort Caroline in Florida a few years before. Charles IX. lis- 
tened to this advice and prepared ships and men, but hesitated 
to begin the struggle with so formidable a foe. Everything 
that was done was reported to Philip by persons in his pay at 
the French court. The queen-mother, Catherine, feared that 
Coligny would control the king, and, aided by the Guises, 
plotted his assassination. The attempt was a failure ; Coligny 
was only wounded, and it seemed likely that the king would 
avenge the blow. It happened that there were in Paris many 
Huguenots who had come to attend the marriage of Henry of 
Navarre, son of Anthony of Bourbon, and the king's sister. 
Catherine persuaded the king that they were plotting against 
him and urged him to consent to the murder of their leading 
men. In a moment of passion he cried out that all the Hugue- 
nots should be killed in order that none might live to reproach 
him for the deed. The next morning was St. Bartholomew's 
day, the 24th of August. Between two and three o'clock the 



THE RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC 



215 



tocsin was sounded by the church bells, and Catholic nobles, 
royal troops, and Paris militia fell upon the unsuspecting 
Huguenots and slew them in their houses or as they fled 
through the streets or tried to swim the Seine. Before the 
killing was over at least 
two thousand had been 
slain. In the provinces, 
six thousand more vic- 
tims were added to the 
blood-stained list. This 
was a terrible blow, not 
only to the Huguenots 
but also to the Nether- 
landers. Queen Eliza- 
beth and her court went 
into mourning. It was 
a triumph for the king 
of Spain. 

226. The Rise of the 
Dutch Republic. — This 
triumph proved to be 
brief. The violence of 
Alva and the cruelties of 
his soldiers had brought 
both Catholics and Prot- 
estants together to save 
the country from ruin. 
By the Pacification of 
Ghent in 1576 both par- 
ties agreed to furnish 
soldiers to expel the 

Spanish troops. The Calvinists of Holland and Zeeland were 
promised freedom of worship, and William of Orange was 
made lieutenant of the king, for all assumed that they were 
loyal subjects, simply defending their privileges. Meanwhile 
Alva had been recalled and other generals came, one after 




Gaspard de Coligny. 

Born at Chatillon-sur-Loing, 1517 ; killed at 
Paris, August 24, 1572. Nephew of the con- 
stable Anne de Montmorency. Knighted in 
1544, admiral of France in 1552. Organizer 
of the ill-fated Ribault colony on the coast 
of Florida. This monument is built into 
the apse of the church of the Oratoire and 
faces the Louvre from which the orders 
for the massacre of St. Bartholomew came. 



216 THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 

another, to take his place. Their chance of success lay in the 
feeling among the southern provinces that the Calvinists would 
use the agreement to overthrow the Church in the Netherlands. 
Within three years these southern provinces had been united 
in a league, while the more northern provinces, under the 
leadership of Holland, made the "Union of Utrecht." The 
northern or Dutch provinces finally declared Philip II. deposed 
and sought to find a king elsewhere, in France, in Germany, 
or in England. Their real ruler was William of Orange, who 
shortly after the massacre of St. Bartholomew had declared 
himself a Calvinist. King Philip offered twenty thousand 
golden crowns and a title of nobility to any one who would 
rid him of so obstinate an enemy. The lure proved irresistible 
to fanatical minds, and William was shot in 1584. This blow 
seemed even more fatal than St. Bartholomew. 

227. Elizabeth and Mary. — By compassing the murder of 
the prince of Orange, Philip only strengthened his enemies. 
Elizabeth had at first felt little sympathy for the Nether- 
landers, but the triumph of Philip might mean her own ruin. 
Ever since 1568 her rival, Mary Stuart, had been a refugee 
and really a prisoner in England. In her own kingdom Queen 
Mary had been the centre of a network of plots. She had been 
accused of being privy to the assassination of her second hus- 
band, Lord Darnley, and she gave color to the charge by marry- 
ing his murderer, the earl of Bothwell. For this reason she 
had been deposed and her infant son James had been made 
king. Elizabeth hesitated whether to keep her, to send her 
back to Scotland, or to allow her to cross over to France. 
Since Mary had not abandoned her claim to the English throne, 
her friends plotted to kill Elizabeth in order that she might 
become queen and restore the old faith. The danger increased 
when the pope excommunicated Elizabeth and declared that 
her subjects were released from their oath of obedience. Spies 
informed the government that Philip had promised his assist- 
ance to the conspirators. Parliament retaliated by declaring 
those who remained faithful to the pope and who worshipped 



THE INVINCIBLE ABM AD A 217 

after the ancient Catholic manner to be traitors. They were 
called "recusants," because they refused to take an oath ac- 
knowledging the queen's supremacy in the English Church. 
When the news of William's murder reached England, all 
Englishmen, Catholics as well as Protestants, rallied about the 
queen. They formed an association and swore that if Elizabeth 
should be murdered, she in whose interest this deed was done 
should never live to mount the throne. A little later another 
plot against Elizabeth was unearthed, and it was believed that 
Mary Stuart had encouraged the conspirators. Mary was 
tried and condemned, but Elizabeth hesitated to allow the 
sentence to be carried out. Her councillors were more firm, 
and Mary was executed early in 1587. This made war with 
Spain inevitable. 

228. The Invincible Armada, 1588. — English seamen had 
not been terrified at the approach of war with Spain. In 
defiance of the Spaniards they had repeatedly sought to trade 
along the coast of America, attracted by tales of the wealth in 
gold and silver which Philip was drawing from the mines of 
Mexico and Peru. Erancis Drake, one of the boldest of 
them, declared to a Spaniard, " I am resolved by the help 
of God to reap some of the golden harvest which you have 
got out of the earth and sent to Spain to trouble the earth." 
In 1577 Drake sailed through the Straits of Magellan into 
the Pacific, plundered the Spanish treasure ships, and sailed 
home by the Cape of Good Hope. When Philip had gathered 
a great fleet, which he called the Invincible Armada, Drake 
sailed into his ports and "singed the king's beard" by burn- 
ing his store-ships. Philip's plan was to proceed to the 
Netherlands, embark an army, and force a landing in England. 
His ships were larger than the English ships, and he believed 
victory certain. But the English ships had heavier guns and 
were swifter. As soon as the Spaniards appeared in the Chan- 
nel the English harassed them and drove them northward. 
A great tempest prevented the English from continuing the 
pursuit. The Spaniards attempted to reach home by sailing 



218 



THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 



around Scotland and Ireland, but many ships were wrecked. 
Although the ships which were lost were chiefly transports or 
store-ships, Philip did not attempt to reorganize the attack. 
England was safe. 

229. The Age of Elizabeth. — The defeat of the Armada is 
only one of the many things for which the reign of Elizabeth 




Armada Ship. 

The strongest ships of the English fleet were like the Triumph: tonnage, 
1000; four masts. Armament: 4 cannon, 8 in., 60 pounders; 3 demi-cannon, 
6| in., 33 pounders; 17 culverins, 51 in., 18 pounders; 8 demi-culverins, 
4 in., 9 pounders; besides 36 smaller guns, — sakers, falconets, and serpen- 
tines. The complement of men was 700 seamen, gunners, and soldiers. 

is remembered. Her architects and builders, her writers of 
prose and of poetry, added to her glory. Houses became more 
open and comfortable, with larger windows. Some of them 
were constructed in the shape of the letter E, in order to com- 
pliment the queen. It was at this time that Edmund Spenser 
wrote his Faerie Queene, that Shakespeare began to put his great 
plays on the stage, and that Francis Bacon advocated basing 
scientific knowledge upon the careful study of nature, Eliza- 



HENRY IV. 219 

beth died in 1603 and was succeeded by King James of Scot- 
land, the son of the ill-fated Mary Stuart. 

230. New Wars in France. — Ever since the massacre of 
St. Bartholomew, civil war had been raging intermittently in 
France. Charles IX. had died and was succeeded by his 
brother, Henry III. As he had no children, the Catholic 
League was already plotting to exclude from the throne the 
next of kin, the Huguenot Henry of Navarre. Between the 
Huguenots on the one hand and the League on the other was 
a growing body of patriotic Frenchmen, themselves Catholics, 
who deemed the political interests of France more important 
than quarrels about religion, and who were called the Politiques, 
or Politicians. Henry III. tried for a while to play one party 
off against the other, according to his mother's plan. When 
this failed, in 1588, he caused the assassination of the leader 
of the League, another duke of Guise, and of his brother, the 
cardinal of Lorraine. He joined Henry of Navarre in 1589 
and marched upon Paris, but when he reached the neighbor- 
hood he was murdered by a fanatical priest who had come out 
of the city for this purpose. 

231. Henry IV., 1589-1610. — If the ordinary law of succes- 
sion was obeyed, Henry of Navarre must now be king; but the 
Leaguers, backed by the king of Spain, swore that they never 
would recognize him. Although many of the Politicians ral- 
lied to him, Henry's task was almost too great, for the Spanish 
king ordered his ablest general, Alexander of Parma, to break 
off his campaign in the Netherlands and help the League. 
This relieved the Netherlanders, who had found a new general 
in Prince William's son, Maurice. Parma's genius in war 
twice deprived Henry of Navarre of advantages won by hard 
fighting. Henry concluded that the only way to bring all 
moderate men to his side and to defeat the schemes of Philip 
and the Leaguers was to return to the old Church, renouncing 
his Huguenot heresies. In 1593 he took this " great plunge," 
as he called it. The result was that all serious opposition 
melted away, Paris opened her gates. He soon felt himself 



220 



THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 



strong enough to make war upon Spain, which had so long 
been meddling in the troubles of Frenchmen. He formed a 
triple alliance with England and with the United Provinces, 
whose independence he recognized. After three years, Spain 
was forced to make peace and give up all the French towns 
she held. 




Henry IV. of France. 

A bas-relief on the wall of the castle of Arques, near Dieppe, representing 
Henry IV. as victor at the battle fought near by, September 21, 1589. The 
bas-relief was unveiled on the anniversary of the victoiy, September 21, 1845. 

232. The Edict of Nantes. — Meanwhile Henry's Huguenot 
followers had watched him suspiciously and were prepared to 
defend their privileges by force. It was time to settle the 
religious question. This he did in the Edict of Nantes. In a 
sense the Edict was a compromise with a minority too strong 
to be coerced, but it was, nevertheless, a noble grant of tolera- 
tion, the first made by any modern State. Henceforth the Hu- 
guenots could dwell peaceably in all parts of France ; equally 
with the Catholics they had a right to be employed in all civil 



THE END OF PHILIP II. 221 

and military offices; cases in which their interests were in- 
volved were tried in special courts in which they were repre- 
sented on the bench. Although they could not worship in Paris 
and a few other towns, they could build their "temples" in the 
suburbs. The king also granted them the dangerous right to 
hold political assemblies . in which memorials to the govern- 
ment might be drawn up and to maintain garrisons in certain 
fortresses at his expense. 

233. The End of Philip II, 1598.— A few months after 
peace was made between France and Spain Philip died. His 
kingdom was in ruins, crushed under the burdens laid upon 
it by him and by his father in order that they might control 
Europe and check the spread of heresy. Millions had been 
drawn from the mines of America, only to be spent in endless 
wars. The Spaniards, thinking themselves rich because such 
large sums poured into their country, learned to disdain indus- 
try. Even their trade with America fell into the hands of 
foreign merchants acting through Spanish agents. Agricul- 
ture was neglected and large quantities of wheat had to be 
imported from France. The riches belonged to the Church and 
to a few great nobles. There was no middle class between 
clergy or noblemen living in luxury and the people wretchedly 
eking out a bare existence. The population was declining at 
an alarming rate. The same miseries threatened that part of 
the Netherlands which had been reconquered by the Spanish 
generals. Whole streets in Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp stood 
empty, for artisans and merchants had fled to Holland or to 
England to escape the terrors of the Inquisition. In the 
fields packs of wolves wandered undisturbed. Meanwhile the 
United Provinces in the north were becoming prosperous and 
strong. Amsterdam was three times as large as it had been at 
the beginning of the troubles. In 1609 Spain was obliged to 
sign a Twelve Years' Truce, practically acknowledging their 
independence. 



222 THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 



SUMMARY 

I. Reorganization of the Church. — 1. Council of Trent : (a) de- 
fines belief ; (6) removes abuses. 2. Reforms undertaken by 
popes. 
II. Means of Recovery. — 1. Society of Jesus: (a) founder; (6) na- 
ture of work. 2. Inquisition. 3. Index. 4. Support of princes 
like Philip II. and the duke of Bavaria. 

III. Tide of Battle in Germany. — 1. Southward extension of 

Lutheranism. 2. Strategic importance of western and southern 
bishoprics. 3. Action of Bavarian duke. 4. Results. 

IV. The Struggle farther West. — 1. Close connection of the affairs 

of England, Scotland, France, and Spain from 1558 to 1560. 
2. Civil wars in France : (a) Huguenots and Guises ; (6) causes 
of war ; (c) character of struggle ; (d) nature of peace terms ; 
(e) St. Bartholomew ; (/) later character of struggle. 3. Nether- 
lands : (a) what the Netherlands were ; (6) severities of 
Charles V. ; (c) danger to local liberties ; (d) policy of Alva ; 
(e) seizure of Brill ; (/) relation between struggle and the Hu- 
guenot cause in France ; (g) northern and southern provinces 
separated ; (h) origin of Dutch republic. 4. England and 
Spain : (a) Philip's early attitude toward Elizabeth ; (6) danger 
from partisans of Mary Stuart, especially after Elizabeth was 
excommunicated by pope ; (c) effect upon Englishmen of assassi- 
nation of William of Orange ; (d) consequences of Mary's execu- 
tion ; (e) why Philip's Armada failed. 
V. Results. — 1. England became bulwark of Protestantism. 2. Com- 
promise in France, Edict of Nantes. 3. Germany divided accord- 
ing to will of princes. 4. The northern half of the Netherlands 
lost to Spain. 5. Exhaustion of Spain. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1556. Philip II., king of Spain. 

1558. Elizabeth, queen of England. 

1562. Beginning of civil wars in France. 

1563. End of council of Trent. 

1572. Capture of Brill ; massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

1579. Union of Utrecht. 

f 1584. Assassination of William of Orange. 

' 1587. Execution of Mary Stuart. 



I 1588. Armada. 



SUMMARY 223 



1593. Henry IV. abjures Reformed faith. 
1598. Edict of Nantes. Death of Philip II. 
1603. Death of Elizabeth. 



FURTHER STUDY 

Genera] Reading : histories of separate states ; Johnson, Sixteenth 
Century ; Creighton, Age of Elizabeth; Haiisser, Period of the 
Reformation. 

Paragraphs : — 

216, 217. The Papal Reformation: Johnson, 261-276; Camb. Mod. 
Hist., II., 33-31, Ch. 18; Alzog, III., 310 ff . ; Hughes, Loyola; 
Ranke, History of the Popes ; decrees of Trent, Tr. and Rp., II., 
No. 6. 

218. Philip II. : brief biography by Hume ; Kendall, No. 60. 

219. Reaction in Germany : Haiisser, Chs. 30, 31. 

220. 221. Scotland : Hume Brown, II., 1-126 ; Camb. Mod. Hist., II., 

Ch. 16. 
222, 225. Civil War in France : Kitchin, II., 311 ff. ; massacre of St. 

Bartholomew, Baird, Rise of the Huguenots, II., Ch. 18 ; Tr. 

and Pp., III., No. 3, 16 ff. 
224, 226. The Netherlands : Johnson, Ch. VIII. ; Hume, Philip II. ; 

Harrison, William the Silent; Blok, III., 1 ff. ; Motley. 

227. Elizabeth and Mary: Colby, No. 63; Kendall, Nos. 53-58; 

Henderson, Side Lights, groups 1 and 2 ; for a specimen of the 
laws against the Catholics, see Prothero, Statutes and Constitu- 
tional Documents, 74 ff. ; see also Lingard, History of England, 
VII., 316 ff., VIIL, 59, 77, 147; see genealogy of Tudors and 
Stuarts below. 

228. The Armada: Kendall, No. 59; Lee, Nos. 140-141, 144-147; 

Colby, No. 61 ; Henderson, Side Lights, group 3. 
230, 232. France and Henry IV. : Adams, Growth of the French 
Nation; biography by Willert ; Edict of Nantes, Tr. and Rp., 
III., No. 3, pp. 30 ff. 

Additional Reading : Ranke, History of the Popes, 3 vols. ; Ranke, 
Latin and Teutonic Nations; Baird, The Huguenots and Henry 
of Navarre, 2 vols. ; Symonds, The Catholic Reaction (abridged 
in chapter of Pearson's edition) ; Henderson, Side Lights on 
English History. 



224 



THE STRUGGLE OF THE FAITHS 



The Heirs of Henry VII. 



Henry VII., t 1509 



Henry VIII., 1 1547 

( 1. = Catherine of Aragon 
Marriages < I 2. = Anne Boleyn 

( 3. = Jane Seymour 

Philip II. = Mary, queen Edward VI., 

(of Spain) 1553-1558 king, 1547-1553 

Elizabeth, queen 
1558-1 603 



Margaret = James IV. of Scot- 
| land, t 1513 
James V. = Mary of 
I Guise 
I (French) 
Lord Darnley = Mary, Queen 
(Grandson of' of Scots, 1542- 
Margaretby 1567. 

her third mar- Executed 1587 
riage) 
James VI. of Scotland, 1567-1625 
(I. of England, 1603-1625) 



TO ILLUSTRATE THE CLAIM OF HENRY IV. TO THE CROWN OF FRANCE 
THROUGH THE YOUNGEST SON OF LOUIS IX., AND TO THE CROWN OF 

Navarre, through Jeanne, Daughter of Louis X. 



Eighth from ) 
Jeanne, Q. f 
of Navarre ) 



-\ 



Margaret 
(Sister of 
Francis I.) 



Jeanne, Q. of = 
Navarre | 

Henry IV., 
1589-1610 
(ffotise of 
Bo urbon-Navarre) 



Eighth from Louis IX. 
through youngest son 

I 



Antony, duke of Bourbon 



Louis, prince of Cond6 
(Ancestor of the Condes) 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

234. The Expansion of Europe. — As the sixteenth century 
had seen the acquisition by Spain and Portugal of vast colo- 
nial empires, the first chiefly in the Americas, the other chiefly 
in Africa and Asia, so the seventeenth century was to see the 
English, the Dutch, and the French establish colonies either 
on the ruins of Spanish and Portuguese ventures or in lands 
hitherto unexplored. Settlements and trading stations were 
made on the coast or along the rivers of North America, on 
the shores of India, and among the Malay Islands. Hencefor- 
ward Europe was to have constantly increasing interests be- 
yond its own borders, and, instead of being barely able to defend 
itself upon the narrow peninsula stretching between the Medi- 
terranean and the northern seas, it was to push back steadily 
the confines of barbarism or of rival civilizations until the day 
when it should dominate the earth. As this work was done 
by piecemeal, and by different peoples at different times, its 
importance was at first little understood. The European 
states had their own troubles, which often took all their atten- 
tion. In England there was a struggle between king and 
parliament over the question whether parliamentary privileges 
or royal prerogatives were the stronger. In Germany the old 
religious question provoked a terrible civil war before it was 
finally settled. France was chiefly interested in using the 
quarrels of her neighbors to increase her own power and terri- 
tory. She was bent upon humbling her Hapsburg enemies, 
whether in Spain or in Austria. 

225 



226 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

235. Trading Companies. — None of the three nations — the 
English, the French, and the Dutch — was able before the 
beginning of the seventeenth century to take an important part 
in the struggle for possessions beyond the seas. During the 
Middle Ages English trade had been generally in the hands of 
foreign merchants. In the sixteenth century Englishmen took 
hold of it themselves. The merchants were organized into 
companies, to each of which the government granted the privi- 
lege or monopoly of conducting all the trade with certain 
countries. The Merchant Adventurers, the richest of them, 
controlled the export of cloth to the Netherlands and to north- 
western Germany. Until the latter part of the sixteenth cen- 
tury the Dutch were content with the ordinary European trade. 
They sailed to Lisbon for the spices which the Portuguese had 
brought from the East, and carried them to the other ports 
of Europe. When, in 1580, Lisbon was seized by Philip II., 
against whom they were fighting, they were forced to make 
the voyage to the Indies themselves. At the opening of the 
seventeenth century both the English and the Dutch were 
organizing East India companies, which were to win splendid 
empires for them. After a time the Dutch drove from the 
Spice Islands not only the Portuguese, but the English. With 
Batavia in Java as their headquarters, they built up a rich 
trade, chiefly by exacting from the natives coffee and spices as 
tribute. The English turned to India, but it was long before 
their trading stations were changed into centres for the gov- 
ernment of the native peoples. Both the English and the 
Dutch formed companies to settle the North American coast. 
The Virginia Company, in 1607, sent out a colony to James- 
town and laid the foundations of Virginia. Henry Hudson 
was in the service of the Dutch East India Company when he 
explored the river which bears his name. His errand was to 
discover a passage to the Indies. The voyage resulted in 
trade with the Indians for furs. The trade became so valuable 
that a separate West India Company was formed. The first 
Erench efforts to form an East India Company failed, because 



TAXATION IN ENGLAND 227 

the French possessed few merchant ships of their own. King 
Henry IV., however, sent Champlain to the St. Lawrence. 
The year after the English settled at Jamestown, Quebec was 
founded by the French, and a little later Montreal. For years 
the English and the Dutch were the greatest rivals in Europe 
for trade on the seas. 

236. Industry. — So much gold and silver from the mines of 
Spanish America found a way out of Spain after the middle 
of the sixteenth century that the European stock of gold was 
doubled and the stock of silver was increased tenfold. Prices 
began to rise rapidly. Merchants and manufacturers grew 
rich. Many persons had capital to lend, now that the old preju- 
dice against taking interest was dying out. About the same 
time the way in which workmen were organized in industries 
was partially changed. In England, especially, the old guilds 
or companies of craftsmen were becoming weak. This was 
largely their own fault, for in many trades the richer crafts- 
men had succeeded in obtaining control of the industry and in 
keeping others out, in order to obtain higher prices for their 
own wares. One of the consequences was that workmen 
moved away from the towns to villages, where they could 
make their wares without being disturbed by the masters of 
the guilds. This was the case particularly with cloth weaving, 
an important industry, because England had ceased to export 
its wool to Flanders and was making its own cloth. Many 
weavers had time to take care of a little farm. Since their 
work was done at home, the method came to be called the 
" domestic system " of manufacture. It gradually replaced 
the guild system. In France the king endeavored to maintain 
the guild system, at the same time checking the attempts of a 
few master craftsmen to monopolize its advantages. 

237. Taxation in England. — With the growth of English 
trade the revenue from import duties rapidly increased. It 
had been customary since the fifteenth century to grant the 
monarch at the beginning of each reign the right to collect 
duties called tonnage and poundage. Later the kings had 



228 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

begun to impose additional duties, under guise of regulating 
trade. These were named impositions. James I. claimed the 
right to raise their rate and to establish new ones. The mer- 
chants resisted, but the judges decided for the king. There 
was danger that if the king took full advantage of this deci- 
sion, his revenues from imports would become so large that he 
would no longer be compelled to ask parliament for ordinary 
taxes. In this way he would escape its control and might 
make himself absolute, like the French king. Parliament 
instinctively felt the danger and constantly haggled with him 
over grants of money. It would not have distrusted him so 
deeply had he not repeatedly declared that he was above the 
law and need obey it only in order to set a good example to 
his subjects. He also declared that the privileges which par- 
liament enjoyed had been allowed by his predecessors, and 
were not possessions beyond his power to take away. He 
repeatedly warned parliament not to interfere in deep matters 
of State, like the management of the Church and the marriage 
of the prince of Wales. Queen Elizabeth had also done this 
when parliament petitioned her to marry, or tried to advise 
her about Church affairs, but she had done it in a different 
way. To both Lords and Commons she seemed the heroine of 
the struggle of England for independence against the pope and 
against Philip of Spain. They could beg her to change her 
plans, but they never ceased to love her and to revere her au- 
thority. James they never loved, and their respect consisted 
mainly in a scrupulous use of the ancient formulas of address 
to sovereigns. The marriage of the prince of Wales they con- 
sidered their affair, particularly when they learned that King 
James had asked the king of Spain for his daughter. When 
the king told them that this did not concern them they pro- 
tested so energetically that he dissolved parliament and tore 
their protest from the records. 

238. France under Henry IV., 1589-1610. — Erance had no 
assembly like parliament which could refuse the king grants 
of money unless he was careful of the rights of his subjects. 



FRANCE UNDER HENRY IV. 229 

The principal tax, called the tattle or tallage, which rested 
wholly upon the common people, had been collected for nearly 
two hundred years without any new grant from the states 
general. The people had good reason, however, to look upon 
such a king as Henry IV. as their protector. But for him the 
nobles would have taken advantage of the civil wars to rees- 
tablish their power as feudal lords, free to do with peasants 
and townsmen as they chose. It may not be true that Henry 
declared that every peasant should have chicken for his Sun- 
day dinner ; but through his minister, the duke of Sully, he 
succeeded in reducing the burdensome taille and forbade the 
nobles to collect any taxes without his consent. He also put 
an end to the pillage of the country by wandering bands of 
soldiers. Since the states general had sided with the Leaguers 
against him he had no desire to see it meet during his reign. 
He allowed the judges in the parlement of Paris and in 
the provincial parlements to remonstrate with him if they 
regarded his acts as contrary to the interests of the kingdom. 
These judges in no sense represented the people, for they 
were appointed by him. Since they were chosen from among 
the most intelligent men of the third estate, they at least gave 
voice to public opinion. Henry made their position more in- 
dependent of him by allowing them to pay an annual tax for 
the privilege of holding their offices as property which might 
be bequeathed to their sons. This was practically to make 
nobles of them, and they were called " nobles of the long 
robe." In foreign politics Henry remained the opponent of 
the House of Hapsburg whether in Spain or in Austria. By 
making a treaty with the Dutch in 1608, he forced the king of 
Spain to make the Twelve Years' Truce with them the year 
following. Although as a Catholic he supported the interests 
of the Church in many places, he did not intend that the Ger- 
man Protestants should be crushed by the emperor or the 
king of Spain, for this would strengthen these monarchs. In 
1610 he was on the point of leading an expedition into west- 
ern Germany to protect the claims of the elector of Branden- 



230 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

burg to the duchies of Cleves and Juliers when he was assas- 
sinated by a fanatic named Ravaillac. 

239. The, Last States General, 1614. — Henry's son, Louis 
XIII., was a child, and his mother, Marie de' Medici, ruled 
as regent. Through her incapable advisers the money which 
Sully had saved was soon expended, and the great nobles could 
be kept from making war upon the government only by splendid 
presents. In despair men again turned to the states general, 
which was summoned in 1614. It was divided as usual into 
three bodies or orders, — clergy, lords, and commons or third 
estate. -The speakers for the third estate complained vigor- 
ously of the oppression of the peasants, but they looked to the 
king to stop this. The lords protested against the system 
which permitted the judges to own their offices and to trans- 
form themselves into a nobility. They even urged that com- 
moners should not be permitted to use for their garments 
cloths which the nobility used, in order that the distinction 
between the two might be plainer. The assembly accomplished 
nothing. It was not summoned again for one hundred and 
seventy-four years. 

240. Religious Conflicts in England. — In England the 
Catholics were still denied the right to worship and were fined 
heavily unless they attended the Church services established 
by law. They had hoped that King James would relax this 
persecution ; but he could not, because the most influential men 
protested that the "recusants" were really traitors, ready to 
betray England to the pope and his allies. Maddened by 
such treatment, a group of Catholics, aided by an adventurer 
named Guy Fawkes, plotted to blow up king and parliament 
with gunpowder, November 5, 1605. This Gunpowder Plot 
was betrayed, and the laws only became harsher. Gradually, 
however, the Catholics were lost sight of in the struggle 
between the Puritans and the king, a quarrel which became 
more fierce in the reign of the king's son, Charles. The Puri- 
tans thought that the English Church services had retained 
too many customs characteristic of the Church of Rome. In 



BUTCH POLITICS 231 

Elizabeth's time some of them had wished to decrease the 
power of the bishops and to give the ordinary clergy more 
influence in the management of affairs. King James now 
accused them of attempting to force a presbytery upon him 
and expelled many of them from their livings. "No bishop, 
no king/' was his motto, learned during his bitter struggles 
with the Scottish Presbyterians. 

241. Dutch Politics. — There were troubles also in the 
United Provinces. The seven provinces which had won their 
independence from Spain had never organized a strong federal 
government. There was a states general with a council of 
state, and a commander of the army and navy called captain- 
general and admiral-general; but the real power rested with 
the provinces whose delegates in the states general were 
obliged to vote according to their instructions. Each province 
had its president or stadtholder. As long as the war with 
Spain continued, unity of action was necessary. It was 
natural, too, that the victorious leader in the struggle, Maurice, 
son of William of Orange, should possess great power. Five 
out of the seven provinces made him their stadtholder, and 
he was captain-general and admiral-general, besides having as 
many votes in the council as any province save Holland. 
This rich province, which paid fifty-eight per cent of the taxes, 
meant to preserve its provincial privileges and at the same 
time to play the leading part in the union. It therefore 
began to oppose the prince of Orange, and its most influential 
statesman, the pensionary Barneveldt, once the cordial ally of 
Maurice in the conflict with Spain, became his personal enemy. 
Barneveldt had excited the hatred of the strong Calvinists, be- 
cause, like many other Dutchmen and Englishmen, he had 
given up the special teachings of Calvin about predestination. 
Barneveldt's position was weakened and in 1619, when Maurice 
accused him of treason, he was tried and executed. For a time 
Holland quailed, and Maurice's chances of making himself 
supreme seemed to increase. 

242. Origin of the Thirty Years' War. —On the Continent, 



232 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

Protestantism was in danger. In Germany the Catholics, 
exulting that they had regained so much lost ground, deter- 
mined to win back all the Church territories that had been 
secularized or administered by Protestant states since the 
peace of Augsburg in 1555. Had they accomplished this they 
would have been tempted to conquer these states also and thus 
restore the unity of the Church in Germany. Many of the 
princes were slow to perceive their danger. The elector 
of Brandenburg was planning to secure the duchy of Prussia, 
which at the death of the reigning duke should be his. He 
was anxious also about his claims to the duchies of Cleves 
and Juliers, now that their ruler had died. About this time 
several south German Protestants under the leadership of 
Frederick, the elector palatine, formed an Evangelical Union 
for their own defence, and the Catholic duke of Bavaria with 
the prince-bishops united against it in a Holy League. 

243. War Begins, 1618. — Trouble was brewing in Bohemia, 
the land of John Huss. Bohemia was a separate kingdom, 
though it had been in the hands of the Austrian Hapsburgs a 
century. They were determined that its religious privileges 
and its ancient liberties should both be decreased, and that it 
should become much like other Austrian provinces. There 
was a strong Catholic party in the country ready to assist in 
the enterprise. When in 1618 two Protestant " temples " 
had been pulled down, the Bohemian estates were called 
together to protest. In a moment of passion their leaders 
hurled two royal councillors from the windows of the castle at 
Prague. These men were not killed by their terrible fall, but 
the act was taken as the signal for civil war. Germany might 
not have been involved had not the Bohemians persuaded the 
elector palatine to accept the crown when the king, who was 
also the German emperor, died, shortly afterward. The new 
emperor, Ferdinand of Styria, expected to become king, and, 
to assist him, the king of Spain attacked the domains of the 
elector palatine. Soon the Evangelical Union and the Holy 
League were drawn into the fight, and the Thirty Years' War 
began. 



THE ATTITUDE OF FRANCE 233 

244. The Fate of Bohemia. — For a few months the situation 
of the Emperor Ferdinand seemed desperate, but with the aid 
of Tilly, the general of the Holy League, he utterly overthrew 
the Bohemians in 1620 at the battle of the White Mountain. 
Ferdinand and his advisers used their victory pitilessly. 
Many of the privileges of the kingdom were taken away and 
a new constitution granted, which commenced the work of 
turning Bohemia into a province. The Protestant landowners 
were driven from their estates, and these were given to the 
leaders of the Catholic party. The confiscations amounted to 
over two hundred millions of dollars, according to the present 
value of money. Three-quarters of the soil changed hands. 
The fate of Bohemia was a warning to Germany. 

245. The Palatinate. — The elector palatine not only lost 
the coveted crown, he was also chased from his own lands by 
the Spaniards, who were eager to occupy them because they 
were situated between Franche-Comte and the Spanish prov- 
inces in the Netherlands. The elector hoped for aid from 
his father-in-law, King James of England ; but James was still 
negotiating with the king of Spain for his daughter and a 
handsome dowry. He hoped to persuade the Spaniards to 
leave the Palatinate, for he did not mean to fight over the 
matter. In 1621, by the expiration of the Twelve Years' Truce, 
the Dutch were brought into the war. 

246. The Attitude of France. — From 1621 the Spaniards 
attempted to hold the Valtelline, a valley through which troops 
could be marched from Milan directly into Austria, and so 
into Germany. This aroused the French, who would not permit 
their whole eastern and northern frontier to become a Spanish 
highway. Three years later Richelieu was made the king's 
principal minister. As a bishop and a cardinal he would have 
preferred to form a league of Catholic princes which should 
have held in check all disturbers of the peace, whether 
Hapsburg Catholics or south German Protestants. At first he 
was weakened by the civil wars which the old quarrel between 
the Huguenots and their Catholic enemies occasionally pro- 



234 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

voked. In 1628 he took advantage of one of these wars to 
capture La Rochelle, the Huguenot stronghold, in order to 
take from the Huguenots their dangerous political power. 
Richelieu expressly confirmed the religious privileges granted 
in the Edict of Nantes, but did not allow the Huguenots to 
hold any fortified towns or to gather in political assemblies. 
His hands were now free, and he effectually defeated the 
Spanish attempt to control northern Italy. 

247. Triumph of the Emperor. — The war had steadily gone 
against those Protestant princes who had attempted to with- 
stand the armies of the League. Hitherto the emperor had 
depended chiefly upon the army of the League; but Wallenstein, 
a noble who had been enriched with the spoils of Bohemia, 
offered to maintain an army for the emperor's service. This 
army lived upon the country through which it marched and 
left a trail of desolation. Wallenstein knew how to win 
victories as well as to gather about him a horde of soldiers of 
fortune. By 1626 all Germany seemed prostrate before the 
emperor. 

248. Imperial Hopes Disappointed. — The emperor issued 
an Edict of Restitution in accordance with which all Church 
lands which had been taken from the Catholics since 1555 were 
to be restored. On these territories the Catholic religion was 
to be required. If the edict were successfully carried out, two 
archbishoprics, twelve bishoprics, and many monasteries would 
pass from the control of princely families which had held them 
for a generation or two. In the emperor's triumph lay the 
causes of his final defeat. Even the princes of the Holy 
League saw with chagrin that Wallenstein ignored their rights 
almost as much as the rights of the Protestants. They sus- 
pected the emperor of using Wallenstein's army to substitute 
a highly organized Hapsburg empire for a Germany which was 
hardly more than a group of half-independent states. This 
prepared them to listen to Richelieu when he urged them to 
insist, at the diet of Ratisbon in 1630, upon the dismissal of 
Wallenstein. The emperor granted their demand only to find 



A NEW PROTESTANT CHAMPION 



235 



that they remained as distrustful as before. It was at this 
juncture that Richelieu completed the defeat of the Spaniards 
in Italy. It was also partly through his efforts that another 
Protestant champion took the field. This was Gustavus 
Adolphus. 

249. A New Protestant Champion. — Gustavus Adolphus, 
king of Sweden since 1611, had already been fighting success- 
fully against the Danes and the Poles. It was his aim to make 
the Baltic a Swedish lake. If 
he marched into Germany to 
save the Protestants, he in- 
tended also to win for Sweden 
important lands upon the north- 
ern coast. Although he made 
a treaty with the French, he 
did not mean to become Riche- 
lieu's tool. He persisted in 
regarding himself as an ally, 
to be treated as an equal in 
all settlements that were to be 
made. He landed in Germany 
in 1630, the year the emperor 
dismissed Wallenstein. Many 
of the Protestant princes were 
at first distrustful or timid, and 

held aloof. They were roused soon afterward by the terrible 
sack of Magdeburg by Tilly's army, during which twenty 
thousand persons perished. Gustavus marched southward 
and defeated Tilly near Leipsic. He now carried the war 
into Bavaria, making the Catholic princes feel the curse of a 
struggle which they had brought on. Tilly perished in a 
battle on the Lech. In his desperate situation the emperor 
turned to Wallenstein. Wallenstein obeyed, though with 
the determination to serve himself quite as much as the 
emperor. He checked the triumphant march of Gustavus, 
but this was all. In 1632 a great battle was fought at 




Gustavus II., Adolphus. 

Born at Stockholm, 1594 ; killed 
at Liitzen, November 16, 1632. 



236 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

Ltltzen. As the tide was turning in favor of the Swedes, 
Gustavus was struck down by a ball. The Swedes charged 
boldly forward to avenge their king's death, and the battle- 
ground remained in their hands. The death of Gustavus did 
not put an end to the Swedish campaign. Richelieu en- 
couraged them with subsidies, and three years later France 
entered the struggle more directly by a declaration of war 
against Spain. 

250. The Peace of Westphalia, 1648. — The war dragged on 
for thirteen years more. There was hardly a pretence on 
either side that it was a struggle for the triumph of religion. 
It had degenerated into a scramble for territory even when it 
was not a succession of plundering expeditions. Germany 
would have been turned into a desert but for the stubborn 
endurance of the inhabitants. The population decreased one- 
half, in some places, three-quarters. The ruin was so great that 
a century was needed to repair the ravages. At last exhaustion 
caused the leaders to conclude the Peace of Westphalia, the 
first of the great treaties which were to reconstruct the map of 
Europe. France received Alsace. Pomerania and several cities 
in northern Germany were divided between Sweden and Bran- 
denburg. Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate and the elec- 
toral title. A new electorate was created for the son of the 
elector palatine who received back the Rhenish Palatinate. 
The independence of the Dutch was recognized. The religious 
question was decided in favor of the Protestants. Princes were 
still to determine the religion of their subjects, but Calvinist 
princes as well as Lutherans were to possess this privilege. 
If subjects did not wish to conform, they were allowed to emi- 
grate. The Protestants agreed to that " Ecclesiastical Reser- 
vation " according to which no Church state should pass out 
of the control of the Church by the conversion of its ruler to 
Protestantism. The emperor's authority was weaker than 
ever. His only compensation lay in his increased power in 
Bohemia and Hungary, and in the army which Wallenstein 
had created for him. 



THE WORK OF RICHELIEU 



237 



251. The Work of Richelieu. — Eichelieu died in 1642, six 
years before the Peace was made, but not until the conquest of 
Alsace was secured. He had been one of the greatest minis- 
ters of France. For eighteen years he had ruled for the king. 
The queen, the queen-mother, and many of the most influential 
nobles attempted again and again to drive him from power. 
Once they nearly succeeded, 
but their triumph was so sud- 
denly turned to defeat that 
the occasion was remembered 
as the "Day of Dupes." He 
did not always distinguish 
between conspiracies against 
himself and conspiracies 
against the king. Both he 
punished ruthlessly. Many 
nobles were sent to the block, 
others imprisoned, and still 
others driven into exile. He 
taught them that to levy war 
upon the king was treason. 
The judges in parlement were 
forbidden to meddle in affairs 
of State and were ordered to 
attend to their judicial duties. 
More than his predecessors he 
employed lawyers to carry out 
in different parts of France the decisions of the government. 
These men were called " intendants," and they were soon to 
reduce still lower the influence the nobles exercised over local 
affairs. In such ways Richelieu was working at the structure 
of absolute monarchy, making it ready for Louis XIV., the 
typical Bourbon king. 




Richelieu. 

Armand Jean du Plessis, duke 
of Richelieu and cardinal. Born 
1585 ; died 1642. Entered the royal 
council in 1610, but only for a 
year. Cardinal in 1622. Principal 
minister from 1621 until his death. 



238 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 



SUMMARY 

I. Industry, Commerce, Colonies. — 1. Trading companies: (a) 
English trade in Middle Ages ; (b) business of early Dutch traders ; 
(c) reasons for Dutch voyages to Indies; (d) English, Dutch, 
and French trading companies ; (e) settlements in America. 
2. Domestic system of manufacture : (a) increase in stock of gold 
and silver ; (b) effect upon princes and capital ; (c) guild system 
gives way to domestic system. 
II. Government and Religion. — 1. England: (a) James I. and par- 
liament dispute over taxes; (b) James's theory of royal power; 

(c) cause of Gunpowder Plot; (d) James and the Puritans. 
2. France : (a) order and prosperity restored by Henry IV. ; 
(b) increase in influence of judges; (c) last states general; 

(d) Richelieu destroys political power of Huguenots ; (e) Riche- 
lieu's methods of government. 3. The Dutch : (a) organization 
of the republic ; (&) power of province of Holland ; (c) conse- 
quences of rivalry between Maurice and Barnevelt. 

III. Thirty Years' War. — 1. General causes: (a) aim of Catholic 
princes ; (b) measures of defence by south German Catholics and 
Protestants ; (c) connection between troubles in Bohemia and war 
in Palatinate ; (d) war becomes general. 2. Defeat of imperial- 
ists: (a) Edict of Restitution; (&) Richelieu sows discord in 
Catholic party ; (c) victories of Gustavus; (d) French period of 
war; (e) settlements at Peace of Westphalia. 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1603. Accession of James I. of England. 

1610. Death of Henry IV. of France. 

1614. Last states general of France. 

1618. Beginning of Thirty Years' War. 

1624. Accession of Richelieu to power. 

1632. Victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus at Ltitzen. 

1648. Peace of Westphalia. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : Wakeinan, Europe from 1598 to 1715; Gardiner, 
Thirty Years 1 War ; Payne, European Colonies ; Gibbins, History 
of the Commerce of Europe ; Cunningham, Western Civilization, 
Vol. II. 



SUMMARY 239 

Paragraphs : — 

235. Trading Companies : Cheyney, 161 ff. ; see also Payne. 

236. Industry : Cheyney, 185 ff. 

237. Taxation : An excellent summary of the system in Prothero's in- 

troduction, pp. 69-84 ; illustrations of every phase of the contro- 
versy may be found in the source books of English history. 

238. 239. Henry IV.: Grant, I., 176-188; states general of 1614, 

Grant, 192-193. 

240. Religious Controversies : See particularly Colby, 69 ; Kendall, 

No. 69; Henderson, Side Lights, group 6. 

241. Barneveldt: Blok, III., Ch. 15. 

242-250 : Thirty Years' War : Gindely, more briefly, Gardiner ; Hen- 
derson, I., Chs. 17, 18 ; Perkins, Richelieu, Ch. 7 ; Fletcher, 
Gustavus Adolphus ; Hume, Spain, 218 ff. 

Additional Reading : Gardiner, History of England, 1603-1649, 14 vols. ; 
Perkins, France under Bichelieu and Mazarin ; Baird, The 
Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 2 vols.; 
Gindely, TJie Thirty Years' War, 2 vols. 

Review, Chs. 11-14; period, 1453-1648: rediscovery of ancient literature 
and art, discovery of new world ; religious conflicts rend western 
Christendom. 

Special Reviews : — 

I. New Interests of the World. — 1. Revival of learning: («) study 
of ancient writers and formation of libraries ; (b) study of Greek ; 
(c) study of Greek text of New Testament and the writings of 
the early Church teachers. 2. Enlargement of known world : (a) 
Portuguese voyages; (b) Columbus and his successors; (c) 
voyages around the world, Magellan and Drake. 3. Settlements 
and trading stations in America and India. 4. Increase of trade, 
growth of capital, new methods of organizing labor. 
II. Religious Union in Western Christendom Destroyed. — 1. Re- 
form changes to revolution : (a) from Luther's protest against 
indulgences to his defiance of authority at Worms ; (6) England 
from Henry VIII., "Defender of the Faith," to Henry VIII. 
forcing separation from Rome ; (c) France from Francis I. pro- 
tecting the Humanist reformers to Francis I. and his son repress- 
ing the reformers with severity. 2. Political motives which made 
revolt safe : («) in Germany, cities and princes jealous of any 
( assertion of imperial authority, illustrations, — protest of Spires, 
Schmalkaldic League, combination of princes during Thirty Years' 
War ; (6) French desire to cripple the Hapsburgs, both Spanish 



240 THE LAST WARS OF RELIGION 

and Austrian, illustrations, — wars of Francis I., intervention of 
Henry II., efforts of Richelieu; (c) personal policy of Henry 
VIII., political motives of Queen Elizabeth. 3. Extent of terri- 
tory withdrawn from obedience to pope : (a) wholly England, 
Dutch republic, Denmark, Sweden, Prussia ; (b) many German 
cities and principalities ; (c) portions of the population in other 
principalities ; (d) the Huguenots in France in accordance with 
the Edict of Nantes. 
III. Matters of Interest to Students of American History. — 

1. Relative power of states which sent out the early voyagers. 

2. Troubles which absorbed France and England while Spain was 
organizing her American empire. 3. English triumph over Spanish 
navy, the reason why England could undertake safely colonization 
in America. 4. Origin of the religious differences which existed 
among early settlers of America. 5. Dutch struggle for inde- 
pendence. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

252. England from 1625 to 1660. — In the days of Henry 
VIII. and his children, England had been part of the battle- 
ground in the conflict between the Church and the Protestants. 
Elizabeth had been politic enough to assure to the land thirty 
years of peace, but she was eventually drawn into the struggle 
against the pope and Philip II. By the time of Charles I. 
the situation had changed and Englishmen were compelled to 
stand aloof from the affairs of the Continent. They exerted 
no influence upon the course of the Thirty Years' War and had 
no share in the gains or losses of the Peace of Westphalia. 
Their attention was absorbed by the conflict of parliament and 
king for supremacy. The victory of parliament prevented 
future kings from governing contrary to the will of the Lords 
and Commons. During the same period the French monarchy 
was organizing its arbitrary power upon the foundations laid 
by Richelieu and Henry IV. 

253. Charles I. (1625-1649) and Parliament. — Charles I. had 
inherited from his father a fatal quarrel with parliament. 
The House of Commons had been guided by the wishes of 
Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, because they were leaders in a 
struggle for national independence. When James and Charles 
had attempted to send help to the struggling Protestants on 
the Continent or to attack Spain, they had failed. This was 
partly the fault of the Commons, who would not grant the nec- 
essary money, but it was mainly the fault of the duke of 
Buckingham, the royal favorite, who seemed to mismanage 

241 



242 



THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 



everything. After the first failure the Commons declined to 
vote money unless its expenditure was put into more trust- 
worthy hands. They also refused to grant the king the collec- 
tion of tonnage and poundage for more than a year. They 



had another reason for their 
married the French princess, 



distrust. When Charles had 
Henrietta Maria, both he and 
his father had promised Louis 
XIII. to allow the Catholics 
greater freedom of worship in 
England. If he did not keep 
this promise, France would be 
provoked to war; if he did, 
all fervent Protestants in Eng- 
land would cry out against 
him. Even after he actually 
enforced the recusancy laws 
and so hastened the war of 
1627-1629 with France, he was 
still suspected of favoring what 
Englishmen called "popery," 
because several clergymen, 
who set royal prerogatives 
higher than the privileges of 
parliament, and whom he re- 
warded with promotion, were 
trying to enforce Church 
usages which Elizabeth had 
wished to preserve, but which 
had ceased to be everywhere 
customary. They particularly desired that the communion 
table should be kept at the eastern end of the chancel, where 
it seemed to zealous Puritans like an altar. They also dis- 
liked the teachings of Calvin about predestination, which sup- 
ported the idea that the real Church was invisible, made up of 
God's chosen, rather than the Catholic idea that it was a great 
organization ruled over by the bishops, the successors of the 




Charles I. 

Born at Dunfermline, Scotland, in 
1600, three years before his fa- 
ther ascended the English throne. 
Married Henrietta Maria, daughter 
of Henry IV. of France, in 1625. 
Executed at Whitehall palace, 
Westminster, January 30, 1649. 



THE GREAT EMIGRATION 243 

apostles. The most famous of these men was William Laud, 
archbishop of Canterbury after 1633. 

254. Parliament Dismissed. — When Charles could obtain 
no money from the Commons, he continued to collect tonnage 
and poundage after the first year was up, because he thought 
that he had a right to the means to carry on the war against 
Spain and France. In order to help the Huguenots at La 
Kochelle, he also forced people to loan him money. Those 
who refused to pay he imprisoned without stating the reason. 
This was contrary, so the Commons believed, to many charters 
and laws. They drew up a Petition of Right in 1628, protest- 
ing against forced loans and arbitrary imprisonment, but they 
did not mention tonnage and poundage. In order to end the 
quarrel Charles signed the Petition, making it a law, but not 
until his judges had told him that men could still be kept in 
prison on his order, if the security of the State demanded it. 
Almost immediately afterward the Commons took up the 
question of tonnage and poundage. The king tried to bargain 
with them, and when this failed in March, 1629, he ordered them 
to adjourn. They obeyed only after a stormy session, in which 
they adopted three resolutions, declaring those to be traitors 
who advised or paid tonnage and poundage, and those who 
introduced " innovations " in religion. Charles did not permit 
this parliament to meet again, and he imprisoned the authors 
of the resolutions. Their leader, Sir John Eliot, died three 
years later in the Tower, from which he had not been released. 
As time passed Charles became more and more determined not 
to call another parliament. 

255. The Great Emigration. — One of the consequences of 
this quarrel with the king and of his apparent triumph was 
the " great " emigration to Massachusetts. Already in 1620 a 
group of " Separatists " or Congregationalists, who had lived 
for several years in Holland, had formed a settlement at 
Plymouth. In 1629 the Massachusetts Bay Company procured 
a charter from the king, authorizing it to make such rules of 
government as should not be inconsistent with the English 



244 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

laws. The Puritans controlled the Company, and, since there 
was little prospect of liberty for them in England, they resolved 
to sell their property and emigrate to New England, taking the 
charter with them so that they could legally govern themselves. 
In 1630 a thousand people sailed with John Winthrop, and 
before 1640 nearly twenty thousand others had gone. This 
emigration was not checked until the Puritans gained the upper 
hand in the struggle with King Charles. 

256. Arbitrary Taxation. — After 1629, in order to raise 
money to meet the expenditures of the government, the king 
was obliged to resort to expedients. The most notorious was 
the levy of ship-money. In time of invasion the ports had 
been obliged to furnish ships. Since the Dutch and the French 
were engaged in building war fleets, Charles wished to establish 
a permanent navy for England. This was reasonable. He 
also wished to accustom the people to pay a tax not voted by 
parliament. Sir Thomas Went worth, one of Charles's advisers, 
thought that if the scheme was successful it could be used to 
pay for an army as well as for a navy. Charles in 1634 ordered 
the levy of ship-money from the seaports, but a year later 
extended it to the inland counties. John Hampden boldly 
declined to pay the twenty shillings assessed upon his estate, 
and so vigorously defended his case in the royal courts that 
only seven out of the twelve judges decided against him. Dis- 
like of the king's way of governing was evidently increasing, 
and his only chance of success lay in avoiding new difficulties 
and in keeping free from extraordinary expenditures. 

257. Troubles in Scotland. — While the ship-money contro- 
versy was going on Charles was provoking his kingdom of 
Scotland to armed rebellion by attempting to establish a Church 
service much like that of England, only more offensive to 
Puritan notions, and to strengthen the power of the bishops 
whose authority had been partially restored by his father. 
The Scots hated anything that savored of " popery," and they 
despised their bishops whose principal work had been to collect 
the tithes, a large part of which they then turned over to the 



THE LONG PARLIAMENT 245 

nobles. In 1637, the day on which the new Prayer Book was 
first read in Edinburgh, there was a riot. All through Scotland 
men began to sign the National Covenant, which pledged them 
to resist the introduction of " popery " and to defend their 
religious privileges. Although Charles withdrew the new 
Prayer Book, a general assembly, in which the ordinary clergy 
formed the majority, voted to abolish episcopacy and to re- 
establish the Presbyterian system. Upon this Charles resolved 
to reduce the Scots to obedience by force. He had only a little 
money, which had been voluntarily given, and the army which 
he led north melted away as soon as the treasury was empty. 
Meanwhile Sir Thomas Wentworth had been establishing a 
strong government in Ireland and had succeeded in doing 
about as he pleased with an Irish parliament at Dublin. He 
advised the king to try the expedient of calling an English 
parliament in the hope that in the contest with the Scots it 
would promise its support as loyally as the parliament at 
Dublin. When, in 1640, Charles followed the suggestion, he 
found that he must pay dearly for any help granted him, since 
the House of Commons was resolved that the king must first 
abandon his arbitrary ways of collecting money. Accordingly 
he dissolved parliament before it had been in session more 
than three weeks. 

258. The Long Parliament, 1640-1660. — Since Charles was 
unable to settle his difficulties with the Scots by negotiation, 
and because a second war turned out more disastrously than 
the first, he was obliged to summon parliament later the same 
year. This parliament, which was not finally dissolved for 
nearly twenty years, has been called the Long Parliament as 
its predecessor was called the Short Parliament. Charles was 
helpless before the demands of parliament, for a Scottish army 
was encamped on English soil and would not withdraw until 
the dispute with the king had been settled and its expenses 
paid. The leaders of the House of Commons, particularly 
John Pym, resolved to nse the opportunity to prevent a return 
of the government from which England had been suffering for 



246 



THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 



ten or twelve years. They struck at the king's principal ad- 
visers, Archbishop Laud and Wentworth, now earl of Straf- 
ford.- Both were shut up in the Tower, charged with treason. 
Strafford had raised an army in Ireland which he had offered 
the king for the war with the Scots. The Commons believed 
that this army was to be used in England against parliament. 

When they could not prove the 
treason to the satisfaction of 
the Lords sitting as judges, 
they abandoned the trial for 
treason and brought in a bill 
of attainder, declaring him a 
traitor. This the Lords passed, 
and Charles signed in May, 
1641, although he had promised 
Strafford that not a hair of his 
head should be touched. Straf- 
ford was immediately executed. 
Laud was not tried and exe- 
cuted until four years later. 
Meanwhile, parliament had 
forced the king to sign a bill 
providing that it should meet 
at least once in three years and 
to agree that the present par- 
liament should not be dissolved 
without its own consent. Other bills made illegal the collec- 
tion of tonnage and poundage, impositions, and ship-money, 
and abolished the special courts of Star Chamber and High 
Commission, which had existed for a century or more, and 
which Charles had used to punish those in Church or State 
who opposed his rule. The one thing upon which the mem- 
bers of parliament were not agreed was the changes to be made 
in the management of the Church. They wished to do away 
with the innovations introduced by Archbishop Laud, but 
some of them wanted also to cut the evil out, " root " as well 




William Laud. 

Born in 1573 ; executed at London 
in January, 1645. A graduate of 
St. John's College, Oxford, of 
which he became president in 
1611. Made bishop of St. David's 
in 1621, bishop of London, 1628, and 
archbishop of Canterbury in 1633. 



CIVIL WAR 247 

as "branch," by abolishing the bishoprics and by governing 
the Church somewhat after the manner of Scottish Presby- 
terianism. 

259. The Irish Uprising. — Before these important questions 
had been settled England was roused by the massacre of thou- 
sands of English and Scottish settlers in Ireland. In King 
James's day all the land in Ulster had been wrongfully taken 
from the Irish tribes and given to emigrants from England 
and Scotland. Wentworth more recently had confiscated all 
the land in Connaught. Added to such wrongs the Irish 
Catholics had the prospect of being ruled by the Puritan parlia- 
ment, which held Charles in its grasp. The result was an 
insurrection. Although parliament was eager to punish the 
rebels, it did not dare intrust an army to the king, lest he use 
it to bring the session unceremoniously to an end. In the 
Grand Remonstrance adopted in November, 1641, they de- 
manded, therefore, that he select ministers in whom they had 
confidence and leave the settlement of the Church question to 
an assembly of clergymen. Since this passed the Commons 
by a majority of only eleven, it was clear that if he acted 
wisely the king might gradually recover control of affairs. 

260. Civil War. — The parliamentary leaders had wrested 
from Charles more of his power than he meant to part with 
permanently. In this way they had tempted him to assume 
the role of a conspirator, and he was not statesman or even 
politician enough to refuse to play such a part. He owed his 
new supporters to the violent attack on the Church rather than 
to any confidence they felt in him. He was strongest in the 
House of Lords, where sat the bishops. The leaders of the 
Commons feared to leave him even this source of strength, 
especially when the news from Ireland grew worse and the 
necessity of sending an army thither increased. They de- 
manded that the bishops should be deprived of their seats. 
Charles retorted by attempting to arrest, on the charge of 
high treason, in January, 1642, five members of the House of 
Commons who had negotiated with the Scots at the opening 



248 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

of the war. They escaped by taking refuge in London 
which did not then include Westminster. Charles now left 
Westminster and sent the queen to the Continent to sell the 
crown jewels and buy military supplies. Two parties were 
formed and preparations were made for war. In August 
the king raised his standard and the war began. He was 
strong in the north and west, while the parliament was strong 
in the more prosperous southeast, and especially in the large 
towns. His followers were called Cavaliers, because many of 
them were noblemen or country gentlemen, while his oppo- 
nents were often dubbed Soundheads, because some of the 
Puritans clipped their hair short. 

261. First Years of War. — Charles began operations with 
an advance upon London, which would have succeeded but for 
the city militia. He then withdrew to Oxford and planned 
another campaign in which a northern army should march 
through the eastern counties and a western army through the 
southern counties, both to unite below London and to cut off 
its supplies by way of the Thames, while Charles advanced 
again from the northwest. This plan bade fair to become 
successful, but the king's generals found that their soldiers, 
recruited mostly in the north and west, were reluctant to leave 
their homes exposed to attacks from towns still held by parlia- 
mentary garrisons. In the east the Puritans of five counties 
formed an association for mutual protection. Its leading 
spirit was a member of parliament named Oliver Cromwell, 
who at the outset of the war commanded a troop of horse. 
Cromwell had explained to his cousin, John Hampden, also 
an officer, that the reason the king's troopers were so gener- 
ally successful was that they were moved by honor, while in 
the parliamentary army there were too many "tapsters and 
decayed serving-men." He urged Hampden to get men of 
spirit, " of a spirit that is likely to go on as far as gentle- 
men will go." For his own regiment Cromwell had chosen, 
men who believed in the cause. It was so thoroughly trained 
and so irresistible in battle that it was named "Ironsides." 



THE DIVISION OF ENGLAND IN 1643 249 

MAP NO. 16 




cf~^ f ?Tr^E,R S E T / : VAlr-t- 



Thames 
rl.urj 




West 2° from Greenwich 0° 



250 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

Although with the aid of the Eastern Association the parlia- 
mentary forces began to gain ground, parliament concluded 
that victory was uncertain without the help of the Scots. To 
obtain this it was forced practically to promise, in September, 
1643, that the English Church should become Presbyterian. 

262. Two Decisive Battles. — The Scottish army crossed the 
border, but it was Cromwell's ability as a cavalry leader rather 
than this army which brought the first decisive victory, at 
Marston Moor, in 1644. Cromwell was in favor of pushing the 
war vigorously until the king was so soundly beaten that he 
would be ready to sign a permanent peace. For this reason 
he carried through parliament a scheme for a New Model 
Army, commanded by soldiers, rather than by great nobles, 
who feared to press the king too hard. The first test of the 
New Model came at Naseby, in June, 1645. Again it was 
Cromwell's skill and energy that won a decisive victory. Al- 
though for a time Charles hoped for the aid of an army of 
Irish Catholics or of Scotch Highlanders under Montrose, 
surrender was inevitable. 

263. The King's Fate. — Divisions had sprung up among the 
king's enemies. The Scots were jealous of parliament and the 
parliament was afraid of the New Model. Many members of 
parliament were willing to introduce Presbyterianism, while in 
the army the number of Congregationalists or " Independents " 
was steadily increasing, because men felt that if the English 
Church became Presbyterian it would also become intolerant. 
Cromwell held this view. In these divisions Charles thought 
he had discovered an opportunity to snatch victory out of the 
midst of defeat. Accordingly, he surrendered to the Scots in 
1646 and talked with them about establishing Presbyterianism 
until the kingdom could be put in order once more. At the 
same time he listened to proposals from parliament. When 
the Scots became convinced that he never would sincerely sup- 
port Presbyterianism they gave him up to parliament, in Janu- 
ary, 1647, received pay for their war expenses, and marched 
back to Scotland. Parliament now was willing to restore him 



THE KING'S FATE 



251 



on almost any terms, so great was its fear of the army and so 
weary of the war were the people. It undertook to disband the 
army in March, but failed, because it would not give the soldiers 
their pay, nor would it guarantee them against being called 
in question for acts done during the war. Cromwell endeav- 
ored to arrange a settlement between the army and parliament, 
but when his efforts were futile he threw in his lot with the 



1 


Hi 
II 



Westminster Hall. 

Rebuilt, including walls and timbered roof, in tbe reign of Richard 
II. (1377-1399). Here Charles I. was tried in January, 1649. It 
belongs now, as then, to the group of parliament buildings. 



army, of which he remained the most popular leader. The 
army, hearing that parliament intended to bring back the 
Scots to compel it to disband, seized the king and marched 
upon London, frightening into exile several members of par- 
liament most active against it. Influenced by Cromwell, the 
army made an offer, called The Heads of Proposals, the terms 
of which were far more favorable to the king and to the Church 
than anything either the Scots or parliament had suggested. 



252 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

These Proposals included religious liberty for everybody ex- 
cept Roman Catholics. Charles refused, because he still hoped 
to win by getting his enemies to destroy one another. For 
this purpose he persuaded the Scots, in 1648, to march into 
England. This sealed his fate. The army, led by Cromwell, 
was again victorious and returned, vowing to have vengeance 
upon "Charles Stuart, that man of blood." Those in par- 
liament who were opposed to the punishment of the king were 
excluded by troops, the others transformed themselves into 
a high court of justice, which speedily condemned him to 
death. He was executed January 30, 1649, in front of his own 
palace of Whitehall. 

264. The Commonwealth. — The men who, in 1640, had 
undertaken to recover the lost liberties of England had been 
carried far beyond their true purpose. They could not safely 
turn back, and if they went on they must defend themselves, 
not merely against their personal opponents, but also against 
all the traditions of the country. Shortly after the king's 
execution the House of Commons declared England to be a 
Commonwealth without either a king or a House of Lords. 
The government was put in the hands of a council of state. 
Parliament could muster scarcely fifty members. The army 
would have been glad to replace it by a new parliament, elected 
not by the old constituencies, which were unequal in size, but 
in accordance with a more equal distribution of seats, granting 
a better representation to the larger towns than they were to 
receive until the nineteenth century. 

265. Ireland and Scotland. — Meanwhile Cromwell had been 
sent to Ireland to suppress the rebels and crush the king's 
party. This he did with savage zeal, in which the determina- 
tion to have vengeance for the blood shed in the massacre of 
1641 was embittered by English contempt for the Irish and 
Puritan hatred of the Catholics. The Irish landowners were 
treated as the Bohemian Protestants had been. They were 
driven into the wilds of Connaught and their lands taken by 
Protestant emigrants. After his return from Ireland, Crom- 



HOLLAND 253 

well, now general of the army, was sent into Scotland, where 
Charles II. had been proclaimed king. When a first victory 
at Dunbar, September 8, 1G50, did not end the war and the Scots 
invaded England, Cromwell crushed them utterly at Worcester, 
just a year later. Henceforth there was no armed resistance 
to the Commonwealth in the three kingdoms. 

266. Holland. — In Europe the execution of Charles I. was 
at first looked upon with horror. In the United Provinces 
all the partisans of the House of Orange were especially 
indignant, because the prince of Orange, William II., was the 
son-in-law of Charles. At the time, Prince William was 
absorbed in a struggle against the province of Holland similar 
to that which led his nncle Maurice to overthrow Barneveldt 
twenty years before. He won a dubious success in 1650 but 
died almost immediately, bequeathing his ambitions to an 
infant destined to become as William III. not only stadtholder 
but also king of England. Holland recovered all its influence 
under the leadership of the Pensionary John De Witt. This 
would have strengthened the peace between the provinces and 
England had not the English parliament, in 1651, struck a 
blow at Dutch business by passing the first of the Navigation 
Acts. Ever since the latter part of the sixteenth century the 
Dutch had excelled their English rivals in the business of trans- 
porting the products of Europe from one country to another. 
The Navigation Act ordered that the goods of all countries 
should be brought to England and her colonies either in English 
ships, or in ships of the country where the goods were produced. 
This meant that the Dutch must cease to carry to England 
wares of other peoples, like the French, the Italians, or the 
Germans. Incidentally this bore hard upon the English in 
America, to whom European goods were often carried in Dutch 
ships. The Dutch reply was war. Since the days of the 
Armada no such fighting had been seen in the waters about 
the English coast. At one time the Dutch seemed to gain the 
mastery and Admiral Van Tromp sailed down the channel 
with a broom at his masthead. He was afterward defeated 



254 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

and killed in a battle with Admiral Blake, an equally great 
commander. 

267o France. — France also had her civil struggles. They 
were called the Fronde, because they were as petty as a child's 
game of throwing stones with a fronde or sling. Louis XIII. 
died in 1643, and since Louis XIV. was only five years old, the 
country was governed by the queen-mother, Anne of Austria. 
She was under the influence of Cardinal Mazarin, an Italian, 
Richelieu's successor in the royal council. Mazarin tried to 
continue Richelieu's policy, but he was hated as a foreign 
upstart. The country groaned under the taxes levied to pay 
the expenses of the Thirty Years' War and the war with Spain, 
which still continued. The government obtained ready money 
from the tax-gatherers and allowed them to plunder the people. 
Mazarin became so unpopular that it seemed for a time as if 
parlement would establish its right to approve or disapprove 
of decrees ordering new taxes. Paris took the side of the 
judges in 1648, the citizens barricaded their streets, and defied 
the royal troops. Many discontented nobles hastened to Paris, 
hoping to turn the civil war into a means of compelling the 
government to grant them important places and large pensions. 
When the citizens and the judges discovered how selfish these 
nobles were, they made terms with the court, and the Old 
Fronde ended, while a New Fronde, or war of princes upon 
Mazarin, began. In this struggle the two greatest commanders 
of the age, the Prince of Conde and Turenne, took first one 
side and then the other. In 1653 the war ceased, because 
all sensible men were weary of the selfish strife. Six years 
later France compelled Spain to make peace and to cede lands 
chiefly along the frontier of the Netherlands. 

268. Cromwell and Parliament. — Since 1653 England had 
been governed by a man fit to be remembered among her 
greatest kings. The members of parliament thought that the 
best way to guard against a restoration of the monarchy was 
to pass a law that they should sit in the new parliament, for 
which plans were being made. This scheme disgusted the 



CROMWELL S POLICY 



255 



army. General Cromwell led soldiers into the House and 
drove the members out, accusing them of having stained their 
acts with injustice and self-interest. He and his officers 
attempted to replace parliament by an assembly of nominees, 
but this assembly, called Barebone's parliament, because one 
of its members was Praise-God Barebone, proved less compe- 
tent than the old parliament. 
A group of its members, how- 
ever, framed a new constitu- 
tion in December, 1653, which 
they voted early one day be- 
fore the majority arrived. 
This constitution made Crom- 
well Lord Protector. He was 
to govern with the aid of a 
council of state and there was 
to be a parliament to make 
the laws. Cromwell accepted 
the power thus conferred upon 
him. 

269. Cromwell's Policy.— 
Cromwell's position was pre- 
cisely that of a king whose 
authority rested upon force, 
but who steadily sought to 
give the country firm gov- 
ernment at home aud honor 
abroad. He allowed those 
who adhered to the Prayer Book to meet privately for worship, 
until he saw that they were his most dangerous opponents. 
The ministers of the State Church were to be Puritans, but 
they were not asked whether they were Presbyterians or 
Independents. He made peace with the Dutch and joined 
the French in their war against Spain. It was during this 
war that an English fleet captured Jamaica. Cromwell put 
an end to the oppression of the Vaudois by the duke of Savoy 




Oliver Cromwell. 

Born at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599; 
died at Whitehall, September 3, 
1658. Entered parliament in 1628, 
again in 1640. Captain of horse 
in the parliamentary army, 1642, 
colonel in 1643; lieutenant-gen- 
eral in 1645; commander-in-chief, 
1650. Chosen Protector in 1653. 



256 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

and made English power feared in the Mediterranean. Of all 
this Englishmen in later days became proud, but at that time 
they looked upon him as a usurper and were impelled by their 
ancient traditions of self-government to long for an end of 
arbitrary rule. The case was not improved by his failure to 
agree with the parliaments elected under the new constitution. 
Naturally a stout defender of law, he had been driven by the 
endeavor to preserve the results of the war to tyrannize over 
Englishmen as no king had done since Henry VIII. He was 
weary of the impossible task when death came to his release, 
September 3, 1658, the anniversary of his victories at Dunbar 
and Worcester. For a time his son Richard tried to play the 
part, but he abdicated. At this juncture one of the officers, 
General Monk, moved by a sense of the real wish of England 
and backed by his army, insisted that a free parliament should 
be elected. The restoration of the monarchy, with Charles II. 
as king, was inevitable. In May, 1660, Charles was recalled 
and parliament declared that " the Government is, and ought 
to be, by King, Lords, and Commons." 



SUMMARY 

I. Charles I. and Parliament. — 1. Origin of the conflict : (a) change 
in attitude toward monarchs ; (b) question of the right to tax ; 

(c) controversy in Church between Puritans and Laud's party. 
2. Dismissal of parliament : (a) reasons for Petition of Right ; 
(&) aim of parliamentary resolutions. 3. Period of personal 
government : (a) causes of Great Emigration to Massachusetts ; 
(6) ship money and other arbitrary forms of taxation ; (c) effect 
on situation of quarrel with the Scots. 4. Long Parliament : 
(a) attack on Strafford and Laud ; (b) parliament secures itself 
against king's interference ; (c) cuts off king's prerogatives ; 

(d) divided by question of Church reform. 

II. Civil War. — 1. War: (a) immediate occasion; (&) division of 
country ; (c) royal plan of campaign ; (77) checked by Crom- 
well's action ; (e) why the Scots were summoned ; (/) to whom 
parliamentary victory was due. 2. Use made of victory : (a) strife 
among victors ; (b) policy of Independents ; (c) consequence of 



SUMMARY 257 

distrust of army ; (eZ) army in power ; (e) king tries to take ad- 
vantage of this strife ; (/) justification of king's execution. 

III. Commonwealth and Protectorate. — I. Organization of govern- 

ment. 2. Conquest of royalists in Ireland and Scotland. 

3. Quarrel with the Dutch : (a) strife among the Dutch ; 
(6) English strike at Dutch commerce ; (c) course of the war. 

4. Cromwell in power : (a) how his supremacy was brought 
about ; (6) his religious policy ; his parliaments ; (c) his foreign 
policy ; (d) why a restoration of the monarchy was inevitable. 

IV. Contemporary France. — 1. The regency of Anne of Austria. 

2. Reasons for Mazarin's unpopularity. 3. Objects of the 
Fronde. 4. Terms of peace exacted of Spain. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1625. Accession of Charles I: 

1(528. Petition of Right (the year La Rochelle was captured by Richelieu). 

1021)-1040. Period of personal or arbitrary government (contemporary 

with later years of Richelieu). 
1(340. Beginnings of Long Parliament. 
1642-1645. Civil War. 

1648. Peace of Westphalia : Fronde. 

1649. Execution of Charles I. : the Commonwealth established. 
1651. First Navigation Act, followed by war with Dutch. 
1053. Cromwell, Lord Protector. End of civil war in France. 

1659. France and Spain- make the Peace of the Pyrenees. 

1660. Restoration in England. 



FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : for Europe, books named in previous chapter ; for 
England, especially Gardiner's Puritan Revolution or Student's 
History of England; biographies of Cromwell, by Firth and 
Gardiner ; for documents, Gardiner's Constitutional Documents, 
source books ; for connection with history of English colonies in 
America, especially Channing's History of the United States. 

Paragraphs : — 

254. Dissolution of Parliament : Gardiner, Puritan Revolution, 64- 

74 ; Kendall, No. 72 ; Henderson, Side Lights, group 10 ; Hill, 
Liberty Documents, Ch. 6. 

255. Emigration : Kendall, No. 73. 



258 THE PURITAN REVOLUTION 

Paragraphs : — 

256. Berkeley's Argument on king's power in ship-money case, see 
Gardiner's Constitutional Documents, pp. 53-54. 

258. Long Parliament : attack on the royal prerogative, Gardiner, 118- 

123 ; Strafford case, letters, etc., in Kendall, 76, 77 ; Colby, No. 
71, and Lee, 158, a, b. 

259. 265. Ireland: see O'Connor Morris, 134-162. 

260. Arrest of the Five Members: Kendall, No. 78. 

261. 269. Cromwell : biographies by Firth, Gardiner, Harrison, Mor- 

ley, Carlyle ; Henderson, Side Lights, group 12. 

262. Naseby : Kendall, No. 81. 

263. Death of Charles : Gardiner, Cromwell, 152-165 ; Harrison, 128- 

129; Kendall, Nos. 82, 83; Henderson, Side Lights, group 11; 
Adams and Stephens, 210-212 ; Lee, 160-163. 
266. Holland : Firth, 312-315, 334, 371-372 ; Kendall, No. 86 ; Navi- 
gation Act, Macdonald, Select Charters, p. 106. 

268. Cromwell and Parliament : Firth, Ch. 20 ; Colby, No. 75 ; Ken- 

dall, No. 85 ; Lee, No. 168 ; Hill, Ch. 7. 

269. Cromwell's Policy : Firth, Ch. 17 ; Kendall, Nos. 87-89. 

Additional Reading: Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion, 
Macray ed., 6 vols.; Ranke, History of England, 6 vols. ; Carlyle, 
Letters and Speeches of Olive? Cromwell, Lomas ed., 3 vols. ; 
Gardiner, History of England and History of the Commonwealth 
and the Protectorate, 4 vols. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

270. The Age of Louis XIV., 1643-1715. — Louis XIV. 

reigned seventy-two years. Until 1661 it was Cardinal 
Mazarin, rather than he, who governed. Even after this 
time his policy was guided by what Richelieu and Mazarin 
had accomplished. But for half a century Louis was the cen- 
tral figure of European life. He was regarded as the typical 
monarch. His ambitious plans to extend the frontiers of 
France compelled other states to unite in self-defence. In 
England his influence over Charles II. and James II. prompted 
them to adopt schemes for the restoration of the Catholic 
Church which caused the Revolution of 1688. 

271. The English Restoration. — The parliament which re- 
called Charles II. to his father's throne, in 1660, had three 
hard questions to answer : First, how far should vengeance go 
m punishing the Puritan leaders ; second, should all the work of 
the Long parliament be undone ; and third, should the Presby- 
terians be tolerated, because they had helped bring back the 
king. The first question was answered by condemning to 
death many of the Puritan leaders, particularly those who had 
taken part in the trial of Charles I. Cromwell's body was dug 
up and hanged. The bodies of Pym and Blake were taken 
from their graves in Westminster Abbey and thrown into a 
pit. Such zeal did not mean that all the effects of the struggle 
against arbitrary government were to be obliterated. Far from 
it. The king's principal minister, Sir Edward Hyde, later 
Earl of Clarendon, had favored the attack of the Long parlia- 

259 



260 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

ment upon the royal prerogatives until, in the summer of 1641, 
the Church was also threatened. Consequently, parliament 
did not abate its claim of the privilege of voting all taxes. 
But it treated Charles II. liberally, giving him a fixed income 
so large that he would not have needed parliamentary grants 
had he not been a spendthrift. He had no mind to go again 
" on his travels," and he knew, better than his father, just how 
far it was safe to try the temper of parliament. The religious 
question was left to a new parliament, composed of such 
ardent royalists that it was called the Cavalier parliament. 
King Charles would have been glad for differences in religion 
to be tolerated, as he was inclined to become a Catholic and 
wished to protect the English Catholics. The Cavalier parlia- 
ment was all the more anxious on this account to crush out 
opposition to the Established Church, with its government by 
the bishops, and its services in accordance with the Prayer 
Book. By a series of acts two thousand Presbyterian ministers 
were forced to resign, no religious services save those pre- 
scribed by law could be held, none of the deposed ministers 
could reside within five miles of a corporate town, and even 
the magistrates of the towns were obliged to become good 
churchmen if they would hold their offices. Those who re- 
fused to conform were called Dissenters. Their numbers 
increased, for they included not only the Separatists, the 
Baptists, and the Quakers, but also many Puritans of the 
older type, who, in Elizabeth's, James's, and Charles's day, had 
remained in the Church. It was in 1667, while the enemies of 
Puritanism were completing their victory, that John Milton, 
the Puritan poet, who had been one of Cromwell's secretaries, 
published his Paradise Lost. 

272. Louis XIV. — To his cousin, Louis XIV., Charles's 
situation seemed deplorable, for, said Louis, "the greatest 
calamity that can befall a man of our rank is the necessity of 
submitting to the direction of his people." When Mazarin 
died in 1661, Louis declared that henceforth he should be his 
own chief minister. He still called about him ministers and 



LOUIS XIV. 



261 



secretaries of state, but they were to do nothing without his 
approval. He presided in person over the councils held to 
consider important matters touching the relations of France 
to other states or the administration of the kingdom. One of 
these councils was held every day, and he did not allow even 
death in his family or his own illness to interfere with the 
despatch of public business. The trade of king he con- 
sidered full of noble joys if one were conscious, as he was, of 
being equal to its many tasks. 
In a great kingdom where each 
province had its own laws and 
special privileges, no monarch, 
however industrious ; could 
settle all questions himself. 
Louis was obliged to trust his 
ministers and secretaries, but 
his jealous desire to pose as 
master compelled them to give 
him the impression that each 
decision was his own. His 
jealousy led him often to pre- 
fer obscure and commonplace 
men who would be content to 
act as his agents. When men 
like Colbert, who had served 
him in his earlier years, died, 
he did not appoint equally 
able successors. He would permit no opposition from the 
judges in parlement, and they learned to restrict themselves 
to their ordinary duties. The states general he never intended 
to summon. Such a monarch was peculiarly open to flattery. 
To him the notion that the sovereignty of the State vested in 
the monarch was not merely a scholar's theory. He believed 
that even the property of his subjects was his to take or to 
leave as he chose. During his long reign the business of 
government was carefully organized about the king as the 




Louis XIV. 

Born at St. Germain-en-Laye, Sep- 
tember, 1638; died at Versailles, 
September, 1715. Became king at 
the age of five under the regency 
of his mother, Anne of Austria. 



262 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

source of all authority. In the provinces, the governors and 
similar officers were pushed aside into sinecures by the intend- 
ants who directly represented the king in his council. Such 
a strongly organized country was dangerous to its neighbors 
unless wisely guided. Unfortunately, Louis XIV. loved glory 
and wished to appear as the " Sun-King." 

273. The Second Dutch War. — One of the laws of the Eng- 
lish Commonwealth which the parliaments of the Restoration 
did not repeal was the Navigation Act. They strengthened it 
by new Acts which ordered that goods sent from Europe to the 
colonies or from the colonies to Europe must be first forwarded 
to England in order that the English merchants might have 
the profit of handling them. Certain "enumerated articles," 
like sugar, tobacco, cotton, and dyewoods could be sent only 
to England or her colonies. These laws were especially 
aimed at the Dutch, who were rivals in North America, in the 
West Indies, and on the coast of Guinea. War was the con- 
sequence. The English began it in 1664 without any formal 
declaration. They seized New Amsterdam and the New 
Netherlands, which in honor of the king's brother were 
renamed New York. As in the first war, the fighting was 
between great fleets in the waters about England. In the 
midst of the war London was visited by a terrible plague, due 
to its narrow, unhealthy streets and badly built houses. This 
was followed, in 1666, by the Great Fire, which destroyed 
nearly all the old city. In spite of these calamities parliament 
appropriated large sums for the war, but was anxious that 
the money should be spent upon the war rather than wasted 
by the king upon his pleasures. Both the English and the 
Dutch became alarmed by the schemes of Louis XIV., and 
made peace in 1667. 

274. Louis XIV. and the Dutch. — When France had made 
peace with Spain in 1659, it had been agreed that Louis XIV. 
should marry the Spanish king's daughter. The Spaniards did 
not wish to see their kingdom with all its dependencies added 
to the domain of Louis XIV., so they insisted that the new 



LOUIS XIV. AND THE DUTCH 263 

queen of France should renounce all claims upon her heritage. 
In 1665 the king of Spain died, leaving a sickly son only 
four years old. Since Louis could not claim all the Spanish 
possessions, he took advantage of a rule of inheritance in 
the Spanish Netherlands which seemed to give his wife 
a better claim upon them than that of the infant king 
of Spain. His best reasons were his desire for such a fine 
country and the excellent army with which he set out to 
conquer it in 1667. The Dutch disliked to see the frontiers of 
a powerful and ambitious monarch brought closer to them. 
They arranged a triple alliance with England and Sweden, 
which compelled Louis to pause after he had captured a few 
of the southern fortresses of the Netherlands. Louis signed a 
peace in 1668, with rage in his heart. He was determined to 
have vengeance upon the stout burghers, whom he also hated 
as republicans and as Protestants. His great finance minister, 
Colbert, gave him another reason, the same that had led Eng- 
land to adopt the Navigation Acts and twice to make war upon 
the Dutch. When Colbert had raised the duties on imports 
of manufactured articles, the Dutch had replied by taxing 
French articles, especially their wines and brandies. Louis 
knew he could separate both Sweden and England from their 
ally, because the Swedes were old friends of France and quite 
ready to renew the alliance for a rich present, and because 
King Charles of England had a scheme, to carry out which he 
needed Louis's aid. In 1669, Charles secretly, and his brother 
James, the heir to the throne, publicly, joined the Catholics. 
In a secret treaty at Dover, the year following, Charles 
promised assistance in an attack upon the Dutch, and Louis 
promised money and soldiers to aid Charles in holding his 
kingdom after he should have made public his conversion. 
Both knew that the jealousy of the Dutch felt by English 
merchants and shippers would make the war popular with 
parliament. Louis had no difficulty in arranging alliances 
with almost all the other European states, so that the Dutch 
appeared to be friendless. 



264 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

275. The Attack upon the Dutch. — The war broke out in 
1072. The Dutch were unprepared for an attack on the land 
side, and the French armies speedily overran several provinces. 
The young prince of Orange was now twenty-two years old. 
Early in the year he had been made captain-general. In the 
summer he became stadtholder of Holland, the stronghold of 
his father's enemies. Meanwhile, to force the French back, 
De Witt had ordered the dikes cut. The Orange party threw 
all the blame for the first defeats upon De Witt and stirred 
the populace to murder him. In the winter the French began 
their retreat. Prince William took advantage of the fear which 
French successes had everywhere caused to unite nearly all 
Louis's former allies in a league against him. Louis also lost 
the help of England. Charles had taken advantage of Louis's 
promises of support by issuing a Declaration of Indulgence, 
by which he suspended the laws against the Catholics and the 
Dissenters. Parliament held this to be illegal, and would give 
him no money for the war until he had withdrawn the decla- 
ration and had signed a Test Act, which excluded all Catholics 
from holding office. The English were not successful on the' 
sea and wearied of the contest, especially when they began to 
suspect that the king of France, and not the Dutch, was their 
real enemy. In 1674 Charles was obliged to make peace with 
the Dutch. A little later he would have been forced to declare 
war on France had not Louis given him money enough to get 
on without parliament. To placate the English, Charles ar- 
ranged a marriage between Mary, daughter of his brother 
James, and William of Orange. Nearly all Europe had 
turned against Louis, and he concluded in 1678 to end the 
struggle. For France the peace seemed glorious, for it brought 
in Franche-Comte and more lands along the northern frontier. 
But the Dutch lost nothing ; they even forced the French to 
reduce the high duties Colbert had placed on their goods. 

276. Prussia. — During the war a new power had begun to 
make itself felt. This was Brandenburg-Prussia. Since 1640 
it had been governed by Frederick William, justly called the 



LOUIS THE GREAT 265 

Great Elector. Brandenburg had suffered terribly from the 
Thirty Years' War, losing half of its population. Frederick's 
first task was to repair the ruin, but he also determined to 
increase his little state and to bind more closely its scattered 
possessions. The old contest about the duchy of Cleves had 
not been settled, and the duchy of Prussia still owed feudal 
homage to the king of Poland. When war broke out between 
Sweden and Poland he sold his alliance to whichever side paid 
the highest price. The result was that as duke of Prussia he 
was freed in 1657 from the suzerainty of the Polish king. A 
little later the inheritance of the duke of Cleves was finally 
divided, and he received besides the duchy of Cleves itself the 
counties of Mark and Ravensberg. To this Rhenish territory 
he had been brought closer by the bishoprics of Halberstadt, 
Minden, and Cammin, which had been given him at West- 
phalia. Thus the stakes were set from the Rhine to the 
Niemen within which his successors were to build up modern 
Prussia. He was a tolerant prince, and his lands became the 
refuge of oppressed Calvinists and Lutherans, and even of 
Arians and Jews. 

277. Louis the Great. — At the close of the war with the 
Dutch, Louis XIV. seemed at the height of his power. The 
corporation of Paris formally styled him Louis the Great, a 
title already bestowed by the people. Never before had the 
word of a French king in the affairs of Europe seemed to 
excite such fear or to command an obedience so humble. It 
was not by success in war only that France was winning glory. 
Many of her greatest poets, orators, writers of comedy and 
tragedy were making French the polite as well as the intel- 
lectual language of Europe. Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Bos- 
suet, Pascal, and La Fontaine are a few of the names of which 
the " Age of Louis XIV." could boast. In 1682 the king fixed 
his court at Versailles in a magnificent palace, constructed by 
the architect Mansart, the builder of many other chateaux. 
He gathered the nobles about him in order to heighten his 
royal splendor. None remained on their estates save those 



266 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 



too poor to bear the burdens of life at court or those who had 
incurred his displeasure and had been " exiled." In this way 
the nobility became less useful, while they retained all their 
ancient privileges, — exemption from the land tax and sole 
right to many honorary offices. 



^T&W WIfc g t j jj 



iniflil 



UUmI 




Palace of Versailles. 

A smaller palace had been erected here by Louis XIII. The present struc- 
ture is chiefly the work of the royal architect Mansart and was erected 
between 1676 and 1688. The court occupied it in 1682. When completed it 
could house 10,000 persons. The facade toward the gardens is 1890 feet long. 
This view is from the Place d' Amies, at the end of the avenue de Paris. 

278. The Cost of Greatness. — Till his death in 1683, Colbert, 
the king's ablest minister, tried to meet the enormous charges 
caused by wars and by royal extravagance. Before he began 
to manage the finances the thievish Fouquet had so conducted 
them that only thirty-two million livres reached the treasury out 
of eighty-five million collected by the tax-gatherers. Colbert 
raised the collections to one hundred and nineteen million, and 
the receipts to ninety-seven. At the same time he reduced the 
tattle, which bore heavily on the farmers. Unfortunately his 
attempt to prevent famine by regulating the times when grain 
could be sent from one district to another or exported from the 
country did the farmers much harm. His efforts to improve 



REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES 267 

the quality of French goods by fixing the manner in which 
they should be manufactured also checked the spirit of enter- 
prise. After his death no one equally able was found to meet 
the burdens which a constant succession of wars threw upon 
French resources, so that the age so gloriously begun ended in 
disaster. 

279. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. — The first stain 
upon the glory of Louis's reign was the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes. Ever since the death of Cardinal Mazarin he had 
been forming the design of reestablishing the unity of the 
Church in France. The existence of Huguenots in his realm 
was as offensive to him as the existence of Catholics in Eng- 
land had been to the Puritans. He did not have the excuse 
of the Puritans that religious differences were expressly for- 
bidden by law, for in the edict the Huguenots had been prom- 
ised a perpetual liberty of worship. Possibly he would never 
have ventured to destroy his grandfather's noble compromise 
had he not been constantly pressed by the appeals of the 
clergy. He was under special obligations to them, for they 
had supported him in a controversy with the pope over the 
rights of the crown in the administration of vacant bishoprics, 
and had agreed in 1682 to a declaration of the supremacy of 
the royal authority in all matters of State. At the suggestion 
of the clergy he had already deprived the Huguenots of every- 
thing not expressly granted in the edict. Hundreds of churches 
were pulled down, Huguenots were deprived of offices, and in 
many cases were even driven from business. After 1681 their 
children, at the age of seven, could be taken from them and 
brought up as Catholics if these children could be persuaded 
to say that they wished to be converted. Every inducement 
was offered to pastors as well as people to renounce their faith. 
When the royal officers discovered how pleased Louis was with 
the news of such conversions, they threatened the Huguenots 
with all sorts of tortures unless they would declare themselves 
converted. One method was the " dragonnade," or quartering 
dragoons in Huguenot houses, encouraging the rough soldiers 



268 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

to perpetrate any cruelty short of death upon the inmates. 
Finally in October, 1685, Louis issued an edict of revocation 
in which he pretended that there were so few unconverted 
Huguenots that the Edict of Nantes had become useless. By 
this edict the Huguenots lost all their religious privileges. 
Their pastors must leave the country in fifteen days unless 
they too would declare their conversion. If other Huguenots 
attempted to leave, they would be punished as criminals. In 
spite of this edict, between three and four hundred thousand 
emigrated, or, rather, fled, from France, carrying their industry 
and their riches, but above all their sturdy independence and 
courage, to other countries. No fewer than twenty thousand 
of them found homes with the elector of Brandenburg, and 
remained to work for the greatness of Prussia. 

280. Later Years of Charles II. — The destruction of the 
Huguenots alarmed the Protestants everywhere. In their 
eyes, Louis XIV. had undertaken the part of Philip II. The 
English were particularly alarmed, because at the death of 
Charles II., earlier in 1685, his brother James, an avowed 
Catholic, had ascended the throne. During the latter part of 
his reign Charles had won over the majority of those who 
feared that new quarrels between king and parliament might 
bring on another civil war. Both his friends and his opponents 
became organized into parties with names which were origi- 
nally meant as insults. His supporters were called Tories, or 
Irish brigands, while his opponents were called Whigs, or 
Scottish rebels. The Whigs were anxious to exclude James 
from the throne ; but Charles threw discredit upon them by 
having several of them tried and executed for treason. Charles 
took advantage of his popularity to change the charters of the 
towns in such a way that they would henceforward send Tories 
to parliament. If he could not obtain votes enough in parlia- 
ment, he knew he could get on without it, since his cousin Louis 
would furnish him with money. One important measure be- 
came law during this period, — the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, 
which secured to persons arrested an immediate hearing, pro- 



JAMES II. 



269 



tecting them 



against 



the danger of unjust imprisonment. 



Thus were fulfilled the promises of Magna Charta. 

281. James II, 1685-1688. — James II. did not have as much 
sense as his brother. He was so sure that he was right that he 
was always astonished to find that any one could oppose his 
will. He acted on his grandfather's theory, that the king was 
not held to obey the law. He collected taxes before they were 
voted. Fortunately for him his 
first parliament had such a large 
Tory majority that little fault 
was found with him, and he was 
granted an ample revenue. But 
when he placed Catholics in office, 
dispensing them from the legal 
obligation of taking the "test," 
he found that even the Tories 
complained. It was dangerous 
that a Catholic king should be 
allowed to fill the army and navy 
and the public offices with Catho- 
lics. James's popularity also suf- 
fered from the cruelty with which 
Judge Jeffreys condemned hun- 
dreds of misguided rebels who had 
followed the duke of Monmouth 
in an uprising in the western coun- 
ties. Two years after he became 
king he sought to protect the Cath- 
olics under guise of a grant of 
religious toleration to all. To 




William III. 

Prince of Orange. Grandson of 
Charles I. ; son-in-law of James II. 
Born at The Hague, Novemher, 
1650, died at Kensington, March, 
1702. Made captain-general of 
the United Provinces, February, 
1G72, and proclaimed stadtholder 
of Holland and Zeeland in July 
of the same year. Two years later 
these offices were made heredi- 
tary. King of England in 1689. 



keep him from winning over the 

dissenters by such means, the churchmen promised them tolera- 
tion by Act of parliament. The next year, 1688, James at- 
tempted to have another declaration of indulgence read in the 
churches. When seven bishops petitioned him to excuse the 
clergy from reading it, he ordered these bishops tried iov. 



270 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

treason. They were acquitted. Meanwhile the birth of a son 
to his second wife, Mary of Modena, a Catholic, destroyed the 
hope that his Protestant daughter, Mary, would succeed him. 
For these reasons the king's opponents offered the crown to 
this daughter and to her husband, William of Orange. 

282. The Revolution of 1688. — To William the strongest 
argument for accepting the offer was that were he king 
England would join the League against Louis XIV. After the 
Peace of 1678, Louis had seized important territories along the 
northeastern frontier of France, including the city of Stras- 
burg, to which he had no just claim. The result was a new 
league, formed against him by William in 1686. William and 
Mary crossed over to England, elames was deserted by his 
own friends and fled to France. A Convention parliament 
declared that by leaving the country James had abdicated, and 
proclaimed William and Mary king and queen. A Declaration 
of Bights was drawn up by parliament and accepted by the 
new monarchs. A little later the Scottish parliament offered 
the crown of Scotland to William and Mary. This parliament 
also reestablished Presbyterianism, doing away with bishops 
altogether. Ireland had to be conquered, but this was a part 
of the general European war which had already begun. 

SUMMARY 

I. England and France after 1660. — 1. Restoration in England : 

(a) questions before parliament ; (b) attitude of parliament 
upon taxation ; (c) difference between parliament and Charles 
II. on question of religious toleration ; (d) treatment of dissent- 
ers ; (e) Milton. 2. Louis XIV. : (a) his work after he was his 
own minister ; (b) method of conducting business ; (c) obstacles 
to absolutism ; (d) attitude of Louis toward parlements and 
states general. 

II. Attacks on the Dutch. — 1. England's policy : (a) stronger Navi- 

gation laws, with (6) war as a result ; (c) fear of ambitious 
schemes of Louis XIV. leads to peace and alliance. 2. French 
policy : (a) anger at Dutch interference with attack on Spanish 
Netherlands ; (b) commercial jealousy and tariff war ; (c) plan 



SUMMARY 271 

to humiliate the Dutch. 3. Breakdown of general attack on 
Dutch: (a) motives of Charles II. in joining in attack ; (b) other 
allies of Louis ; (c) William of Orange, the antagonist of Louis ; 
(d) Dutch methods of defence ; (e) Louis deserted by his allies ; 
(/) England makes peace with the Dutch ; (g) marriage of 
William and Mary Stuart. 4. Nature of Peace of 1678. 

III. Prussia. — 1. The Great Elector. 2. His territorial gains. 3. 

Prussia no longer vassal of Poland. 4. The Elector's policy of 
toleration. 

IV. The Religious Question again, in France and England. — 

1. Louis the Great : (a) brilliancy of French civilization ; (6) 
burden of expense ; (c) Louis's desire to suppress dissent; (d) his 
first restrictions upon the Huguenots ; (e) excuse for the revoca- 
tion of the Edict of Nantes ; (/) ministers driven from the coun- 
try, others compelled to remain ; (g) the Huguenot exodus. 2. 
Question of tolerating English Catholics : (a) Declaration of In- 
dulgence and parliamentary reply by Test Act ; (b) fear excited 
because James II. was a Catholic ; (c) theories of government of 
James ; (d) a new Declaration of Indulgence ; (e) promises to 
the dissenters ; (/) the conflict brings on Revolution of 1688. 
3. Relation of this to struggle between William of Orange and 
Louis XIV. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1660. Restoration of Charles II. 

1670. Treaty of Dover (connect the ensuing war with the Dutch). 
1679. Habeas Corpus Act. 

1685. Revocation of Edict of Nantes. Accession of James II. to Eng- 
lish throne. 
1688. Revolution in England. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : Wakeman, and the histories of England, Germany, 
France, and Spain, already mentioned ; Figgis, English History 
from Original Sources. 

Paragraphs : 

271. Restoration: Gardiner, History of England, 576-582 ; Colby, No. 
77 ; Henderson, Side Lights, group 14 ; persecution of dissenters, 
Gardiner, 582 ff. ; Kendall, Nos. 90-93 ; Figgis ; Acts, in Adams 
and Stephens, Nos. 223-226. 



272 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

Paragraphs : 

272, 277, 278. Louis XIV. : general character of his rule, Grant, II., 
Ch. 10, Kitchin, III., 143-164; Hassall, Louis XIV., Chs. 3, 11 ; 
Perkins, Ch. 5. 

273-275. The Dutch : for Navigation Acts, see Macdonald, 110, 133 ; 
Cheyney, 189-193 ; Andrews, Ch. 1 ; Kendall, No. 94 : the Great 
Fire ; Colby, No. 78 ; Kendall, No. 93 ; Henderson, Side Lights, 
group 16 ; Figgis ; the political situation, briefly in Gardiner, 
589-593, 599-609; Grant, II., 30-44 ; Declaration of Indulgence, 
Adams and Stephens, No. 227 ; Kendall, No. 95. 

274. See genealogy below for claim of Louis XIV. upon Spanish heritage. 

276. The Great Elector: Henderson, II., 1-29; Tuttle, I., especially 
Chs. 5, 6. 

279. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes : Grant, II., Ch. 12 ; 

Kitchin, III., 223-231 ; Baird, The Huguenots and the Bevocation 
of the Edict of Nantes, II., Ch. 11. 

280. Later Years of Charles II. : Gardiner, Ch. 40 ; Kendall, No. 96 ; 

Figgis ; Habeas Corpus Act, Hill, Ch. 8. 
281-282. Revolution of 1688 : Kendall, Nos. 98, 99, 101 ; Colby, 81- 
83 ; Lee, Nos. 180-192 ; Henderson, Side Lights, group 19 ; 
Figgis, Part II. ; Hill, Ch. 9. 

Additional Reading: Macaulay, History of England, 5 vols. ; Perkins, 
France under the Begency ; Tuttle, History of Prussia, 4 vols. ; 
Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History ; Andrews, Colonial 
Self- Government. 

to illustrate the dispute oyer the spanish heritage; see also 
Paragraph 290 



Philip II., tl598 
(of Spain) 

Philip III., 1 1621 




Louis XIII. = Anne Philip IV., + 1665 
(of France) 1 | 


Maria = Emperor Ferdinand III, 


Louis XIV. = Maria Charles II., Margaret = Leopold I., 1 1705 
1 1715 | + 1700 | 3d marriage = 
Louis, 1 1711 Maximilian = Maria 


1 (of Bavi 


iria) | | | 


— Philip V., 
1 Too- 1740 
(of Spain) 
Louis XV., 1715-1774 
(of France) 


Joseph, Joseph, Charles VI., 
+ 1699 +1711 emperor 
1711-1740 



CHAPTER XVII. 

DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 

283. 1688-1715. —The twenty-five years which followed 
the Revolution of 1688 were a period of important changes in 
the English system of government. To France they brought 
ruin and disappointment, the fatal consequence of a policy 
which had forced all Europe to unite in self-defence. The 
struggles which resulted altered the political geography of 
Europe. Brandenburg became the monarchy of Prussia; the 
duke of Savoy was made king of Sicily, a title which he was 
soon to exchange for that of king of Sardinia; the Nether- 
lands ceased to be Spanish and became Austrian. During this 
period, also, Russia claimed a share in European politics. 

284. Louis XIV. and his Enemies. — In September, 1688, 
before William III. became king of England, the French had 
provoked war on the Continent by seizing the domain of the 
elector palatine, which Louis XIV. claimed should belong to 
the wife of his brother, the duke of Orleans. To make im- 
possible its recovery by the generals of the League, he ordered 
his officers to burn the cities and devastate the whole region. 
The wretched inhabitants were driven from their homes, 
carrying their hatred of the French far into Germany. As 
soon as William was established in his new kingdom, the 
English entered the League. This gave the war a new char- 
acter. Its principal cause had been the desire of both Louis 
and the Emperor Leopold to possess the great Spanish heri- 
tage. Each had married a sister of the feeble Spanish king. 
Their mothers also were Spanish princesses. England had 

273 



274 DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 

slight interest in this family quarrel. What the English 
feared was the growth of French power guided by the bound- 
less ambitions of Louis XIV. By this time both the French 
and the English had trading stations in India. In America 
the French held the St. Lawrence valley and were exploring 
the Mississippi, while the English had settlements scattered 
along the Atlantic coast from Maine to the Carolinas. Both, 
also, had colonies in the West India Islands. The war became 
a struggle for these colonies. It proved to be the beginning 
of a series of wars, a new Hundred Years' W r ar, which closed 
only in 1815. 

285. King William's War, 1689-1697. — In America the 
earlier wars received names different from their names in 
Europe. The first was called King William's War. The 
French and their Indian allies burned several frontier settle- 
ments, massacring their inhabitants, while the English cap- 
tured Port Royal in Acadia, later called Nova Scotia. In 
Europe Louis XIV. treated James II. as king of England, and 
sent an expedition to Ireland to establish his authority in that 
country. King William despatched against James, Marshal 
Schomberg, a Huguenot who had been forced to leave France 
after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1690 William 
crossed to Ireland and defeated James at the battle of the 
Boyne. On the Continent the French gained most of the vic- 
tories, but William's stubborn persistence in beginning anew 
after each defeat kept them continually in check. Louis soon 
became weary of the war, which was rapidly exhausting the 
resources of France. He wished peace made before Charles II. 
of Spain died and the struggle for his possessions began. 
When peace was made at Eyswick, in 1697, Louis was obliged 
to give up all the lands which he had seized since 1678, except 
the city of Strasburg. The ruin of his plans had begun. 

286. Reign of William III, 1689-1702. — At the Peace of 
Ryswick, Louis had been obliged to recognize William III. 
as. king of England. William was never popular in England. 
Even the nobles who had invited him to take the English 



IRELAND 275 

crown occasionally wrote to James, thinking it best to regain 
his favor in case he should return. In spite of this — possibly 
because of it — the English method of governing chiefly through 
parliament was made more effective during William's reign. 
Annual sessions were secured through the custom of voting 
money for government expenses for only a year, and of renew- 
ing for the same period the act making mutiny punishable by 
court-martial. William at first chose his ministers from both 
Whigs and Tories ; but when this led to disputes, he selected 
them from the Whigs, who happened to have a majority in the 
House of Commons. The ministers began to act more like 
a modern cabinet, and to organize their followers carefully. 
Since a supreme parliament might have been as dangerous as 
an absolute king if there were none to whom an appeal from 
its decisions might be made, it was fortunate that the practice 
of licensing printing was abandoned and the press made free. 
A Toleration Act relieved the dissenters from oppression. 
Other changes gave England strength to pay for her wars. A 
Bank of England was founded. Money was borrowed in the 
form of permanent loans, called a national debt, so that the 
expenses of a great crisis might not crush the citizens, 
but might be partly borne by later generations. In 1701, 
after the death of Queen Mary and the death of her sister 
Anne's children, an Act of Settlement was passed, guaranteeing 
the crown in the event of the death of William and of Anne 
to the Electress Sophia of Hanover, daughter of the elector 
palatine and granddaughter of James I., and to her Protestant 
descendants. 

287. Ireland. — The only one of the three kingdoms which 
lost by the transfer of the crown to William was Ireland. 
Under Charles II. there had been an attempt to return to the 
Irish some of the land that had been taken from them during 
the rule of Cromwell. The result was not satisfactory, for 
while in 1641 about two-thirds of the cultivated land was held 
by Irish Catholics, in 1685 about two-thirds was held by Prot- 
estants, who were almost wholly English emigrants. The 



276 DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 

Irish Catholics had cast in their lot with James, and his over- 
throw brought about still further confiscations. The Dublin 
parliament no longer had any Catholic members, so that it 
represented only a small portion of the people. It would 
allow no open worship by the Catholics. Long years of op- 
pression were to make the hatred of the English an Irish 
national tradition. 

288. Repulse of the Turks. — The Emperor Leopold had 
other enemies besides Louis XIV. In 1683 the Turks had laid 
siege to Vienna, and would have captured it but for the timely 
assistance of John Sobieski, king of Poland. The next year 
a crusade was begun against this ancient enemy of Europe. 
The emperor, the Poles, the Venetians, and a little later the 
Russians, joined in a Holy League. Buda was taken by 
assault, and the Turkish army disastrously defeated at the 
battle of Mohacs in 1687. The outbreak of the war between 
Louis XIV. and the emperor for a time saved the Turks from 
utter overthrow, but by 1699 they were forced to sign the Peace 
of Karlowitz, by which they abandoned to the emperor not 
only Hungary and Transylvania, but also parts of the Slavic 
lands south of Hungary. Poland received Podolia and other 
territories, which, a century later, she was to surrender to 
Russia. The Russians received Azov. It was in this war, 
during a bombardment of the Acropolis at Athens, that a 
Venetian shell ruined the Parthenon, which the Turks were 
using as a powder magazine. 

289. Austria-Hungary. — Hungary now fell more completely 
under the power of the Hapsburgs. Hitherto the monarchy 
had been elective. An agreement with the Hungarian diet 
rendered it hereditary in the House of Hapsburg on condition 
that each new king should swear at his accession to respect the 
constitution of the land. This made up in part for the loss of 
power brought upon the Hapsburgs by the Peace of Westpha- 
lia. Since that time the Empire had been hardly more than a 
loose confederation in which the emperor had little real au- 
thority. Thenceforward Austria and the lands associated with 



THE SPANISH HERITAGE 277 

it, rather than the Empire, gave actual power to the ruler 
generally known as the emperor. 

290. The Spanish Heritage. — At the close of the century 
Charles II. of Spain had not long to live. Those who claimed 
to be his heirs were busy arranging for a division of the heri- 
tage. It was a splendid domain. Although Louis XIV. had 
already taken away Franche-Comte and the southern portion 
of the Netherlands, a vast empire remained. This included, 
besides Spain, the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, Sardinia, 
Milan, and other Italian lands, the Netherlands, half of North 
America, the larger part of South America, Cuba, Porto Rico, 
and the Philippines. In 1668 Louis XIV. and Leopold had 
agreed upon a plan of division, because the infant Charles was 
so feeble that he was not expected to grow to manhood. After 
the Peace of Ryswick, Louis made two treaties of partition with 
William, who represented English and Dutch interests. By the 
second the dauphin of France was to have most of the Italian 
lands, while the emperor's younger son, Charles, was to have 
Spain, the Netherlands, and the Indies. The emperor claimed 
the whole for Charles. Most of the Spaniards, including the 
dying king, were incensed by such schemes for spoiling the 
magnificent empire which was still their glory. Consequently 
the friends of France in Madrid easily persuaded king and coun- 
cillors to make a will, giving the whole heritage to the second 
grandson of Louis. This was an advantage to the family of 
Louis rather than to France, for the new king was to give up 
his claim upon the French throne, and the two kingdoms were 
to be separate forever. The news of this bequest followed 
immediately the death of Charles in November, 1700. Louis 
accepted the will, breaking his agreements with England and 
Holland. This would not have brought on war, but Louis 
acted as if the Spanish possessions were to be managed from 
Versailles and as if his grandson, King Philip V., was simply 
a deputy. Just at this moment James II. died, but not before 
Louis had promised to recognize his son as James III. The 
English were enraged. They scorned the idea that it rested 



278 



DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 



with Louis to transfer the crown at his pleasure. Thus was 
brought on the War of the Spanish Succession, called in Amer- 
ica Queen Anne's War, because William died and she mounted 
the throne before it broke out. 

291. Europe takes Sides. — The War of the Spanish Succession 
lasted for twelve years. Louis had no allies except Bavaria 
and Spain, where the new king was really popular. The duke 
of Savoy at first joined him, but afterward, . finding that the 
emperor would promise more, changed sides. To win the 
elector of Brandenburg, the emperor allowed him to take, in 
1701, the title king of Prussia. The king of Portugal also 

abandoned Louis, attracted by 
the offers of the allies, and par- 
ticularly of England. It was at 
this time that the Methuen treaty 
was made by which England 
lowered the duties upon Portu- 
guese wines, and Portugal, in 
return, lowered those upon Eng- 
lish woollens and other manufact- 
ures. Commercially, Portugal 
became an outlying province of 
England, and the products of the 
Portuguese colony of Brazil went 
to pay for articles purchased by 
the Portuguese of the English. 

292. The War. — France lost 
nearly all the great battles of the 
war, although for fifty years her 
armies had not been defeated. 
Among the allies the two great- 
est generals were the English 
duke of Marlborough and Prince 
Eugene, cousin of the duke of Savoy. They shared the glory 
of the victories of Blenheim in 1704 and Malplaquet in 1709. 
The duke of Marlborough was a politician as well as a soldier 




Duke of Marlborough. 

John Churchill, created duke of 
Marlborough in 1702. Born in 1650 ; 
died in 1722. Commander of the 
British troops during the War of the 
Spanish Succession. Victor at Blen- 
heim, 1704; at Ramillies, 1706; at 
Oudenarde, 1708 ; at Malplaquet in 
1709. Removed from command in 
1711, when the Tories gained power. 



PETER THE GEE AT 



279 



and he controlled the English government during nearly the 
whole of the war. He was in no haste to make peace, because 
he thought that this would decrease his influence. 

293. Peter the Great, 1682-1725.— In northern Europe, also, 
war was raging between Sweden under Charles XII. and Rus- 
sia under Peter the Great. For two centuries the Eussians 
had been independent of their Tartar conquerors. Several of 
their tsars had attempted to increase their relations with 
western Europe and to reor- 
ganize the country. The task 
was difficult, because no part 
of the Russian frontier touched 
either the Black Sea or the 
Baltic, and the White Sea was 
frozen several months of the 
year. The capital was at Mos- 
cow. Peter became actual 
ruler of Russia in 1689, al- 
though he had been nominally 
tsar since 1682. As he grew 
to manhood his curiosity to 
learn the European arts be- 
came a consuming passion. He 
was particularly anxious to 
learn how ships were built 
and how soldiers were organ- 
ized for war. To the old Rus- 
sians, who despised and hated 
a Europe which differed from 
their own land in customs and in religion, these things seemed 
idle amusements. In reality the ships which he built' and 
the regiments he organized while still a youth were the be- 
ginnings of Russia's modern army and navy. The Peace of 
Karlowitz had brought him Azov, but this port he was com- 
pelled to restore in 1711 at the end of another war. Before 
this peace had been made he had journeyed westward, visit- 




Peter the Great. 

Born, 1672; died, 1725. Titular 
tsar in 1682. First journey 
to western Europe in 1696-97. 
Founded St. Petersburg in 1703. 



280 DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 

ing Germany, Holland, England, and Austria, everywhere 
observing whatever could instruct him in his task of re- 
casting the industrial and social life of Russia. Assuming a 
disguise, he even worked in the shipyards of Holland. At 
Vienna he was eager to learn of Prince Eugene, already famous 
as a general. He was hastily recalled to Russia by the revolt 
of the ancient militia, named the Streltsi, which disliked his 
reforms and which was loath to see its own influence decreasing. 
In punishing them he showed the same savage energy which 
characterized him throughout. It was shortly after this that 
he laid the foundations of the city of Petersburg in the marshes 
of the lower Neva. This was to be the portal through which 
European influences were to come to his aid. There was no 
part of the industrial or social or political life which his re- 
forms did not touch. He ventured even to change the govern- 
ment of the Church, leaving the office of patriarch vacant and 
appointing a board of bishops and archbishops, later called the 
Holy Synod. The new army numbered at the end of his 
reign over two hundred thousand, the navy forty-eight ships of 
the line, besides a multitude of smaller vessels. These things 
were expensive and new taxes were devised, falling with crush- 
ing weight upon the peasants, who a century before had been 
reduced to serfdom. Although Peter succeeded in decreasing 
the differences between his country and other European states, 
and although Russia had to be taken into account in all the 
wars which followed, it is doubtful whether he greatly changed 
the character of the Russian people. 

294. Charles XII., 1697-1718. — Charles XII. of Sweden was 
only eighteen years old in 1700 when the war with Russia 
and her allies, Poland and Denmark, began. Pour years be- 
fore, at the death of John Sobieski, Augustus II., elector of 
Saxony, had been chosen king of Poland. Augustus and Peter 
proposed to divide between them the Swedish lands on the 
eastern shore of the Baltic. The king of Denmark also hoped 
for a share of the spoils. The allies had mistaken their enemy. 
Although still a boy, Charles was eager to rival the glories of 



PEACE OF UTRECHT 281 

Alexander the Great. This was not a mere childish dream, 
for he proved to be one of the greatest generals Europe had 
ever seen. Fortunately for him, his army had forgotten neither 
the discipline nor the lessons in war given it by Gustavus 
Adolphus. It took Charles only six weeks to force a peace 
from the king of Denmark. Next he turned upon Peter and 
defeated his army before Narva in November. This victory 
gave him the choice of continuing his attacks upon the Rus- 
sians, and so guaranteeing his provinces from danger, or of 
entering Poland against Augustus II. He took the latter 
course, and wasted six years in trying to depose Augustus and 
place upon the throne Stanislaus Leszcyuski. When he had 
apparently succeeded, he tried to offset the gains the tsar had 
been making along the Baltic by a direct invasion of Russia 
toward Moscow. This failed, and he turned southward, hoping 
to find allies among the Cossacks, whose hetman, Mazeppa, 
promised him the support of forty thousand of these terrible 
horsemen. Mazeppa could not keep his promise, and a Rus- 
sian winter completed the ruin of the Swedish army. Peter 
brought against him an army twice as large. The battle took 
place at Poltava in 1709. It was the revenge for Narva. For 
several years Charles found refuge among the Turks, and with 
insane obstinacy refused to return to Sweden until long after 
it was vain to hope for the recovery of what Sweden had lost. 
When peace was finally made in 1721, Kussia had gained 
Ingermanland, Swedish Livland, Esthland, and parts of Carelia 
and Finland. One of Peter's ambitions was satisfied. 

295. Peace of Utrecht, 1713. — The fighting in the north 
threatened several times to become complicated with the cam- 
paigns against Louis XIV. Fortunately for the allies both 
Charles XII. and Peter the Great were not inclined to turn 
aside from their own struggle. When in 1711 the Archduke 
Charles inherited the possessions of the Hapsburgs and was 
soon to become emperor, England and Holland were anxious 
that he should not have the Spanish possessions also, for in 
this case he would be as powerful as Charles V. had been. 



282 



DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 




PEACE OF UTRECHT 



283 



In England Marlborough had lost his influence, and the Tories 
were anxious to make peace. This led to the treaties of Utrecht 
in 1713, to which all the allies agreed except the emperor. He 
continued the war a year longer, making peace with Louis at 
Rastadt. By the Peace of Utrecht and the Peace of Eastadt, 
the map of Europe was largely redrawn. Spain and the Indies 
were to belong to Philip V. Of the other Spanish possessions 




Chateau of Chambery. 

This chateau was constructed iu the thirteenth century 
by Thomas L, count of Savoy. Later the residence of the 
dukes of Savoy until they fixed their residence at Turin. 

the Emperor Charles was to have Naples, Sardinia, Milan, 
and the Netherlands. The duke of Savoy received Sicily. The 
English retained Gibraltar, which they had captured. Erom 
Louis they gained Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay. 
They also received the assiento, or right to transport all the 
slaves sold in Spanish America. As a result of the war the 
magnificent inheritance of Philip II. was dissipated. Spain 
passed from the Hapsburg to the Bourbon family. But it was 



284 DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 

some compensation to the Austrian Hapsburgs to substitute 
themselves for the Spaniards in Italy and the Netherlands. 
France had gained nothing, although the family of Louis had 
acquired a kingdom. French jealousy of the Hapsburgs was 
to turn wholly toward Austria. 

296. New Monarchs in France and England. — In 1715 Louis 
XIV. died. So great had been the misery of the country dur- 
ing the war that the people breathed a sigh of relief at the 
news. The new king, Louis XV., great-grandson of Louis 
XIV., was only ten years old, and for a time the government 
was managed by a regent, the duke of Orleans, the late king's 
nephew. Queen Anne of England had died the year before. 
In accordance with the Act of Settlement her successor was 
the elector of Hanover, George I., great-grandson of James I. 
He became king of Scotland also, for in 1707 Scotland and 
England had been united by agreement between the parlia- 
ments of the two kingdoms. After that time Scotland sent 
her representatives to Westminster instead of to Edinburgh. 
There were many in England and in Scotland who would have 
preferred that Anne should have been succeeded by her brother 
James, usually called the Old Pretender. These persons were 
nicknamed Jacobites. James tried in 1715 to raise an insur- 
rection against the new king, but his supporters were easily 
beaten. His title could not be recognized even by France, for 
Louis XIV. had abandoned him at the Treaty of Utrecht. 

SUMMARY 

I. Louis XIV. and William III. — 1. King William's War : (a) provo- 
cation by Louis ; (6) why English entered League against him ; 
(c) meaning of war for England and France ; (d) how American 
colonies were affected ; (e) struggle in Ireland ; (/) nature of 
peace. 2. France and England : («) effect of the war upon 
France ; (b) origin of English national debt ; (c) the way par- 
liament controlled expenditure and army ; (cl) beginnings of 
cabinet system ; (e) religious toleration ; (/) Act of Settlement ; 
(g) treatment of Ireland, especially in relation to origin of 
" Irish question." 



SUMMARY 285 

II. Spanish Heritage. — 1. Of what it consisted. 2. Schemes for 
division : (a) treaties of partition ; (?>) how Louis's grandson 
gained a great heritage. 3. The war : (a) why nearly all Europe 
took sides against Louis; (/>) cases of Prussia and Portugal; (c) why 
the English remember with pride this war ; (d) reason Sweden 
and Russia took no part in it. 4. Division of the heritage : 
(«) change in attitude toward Austria's share ; (5) gains of 
England in America. 

III. East and North. — 1. Turks: (a) their disasters in Hungary; 

(6) relation of this to growth of Austro- Hungarian monarchy. 
2. Peter the Great : (a) his mania for reform ; (b) his journeys 
in western Europe : (c) results of his work. 3. Charles XII. 
and Peter the Great : (a) combination against the Swedes ; 
(&) first successes of Charles ; (c) his mistaken policy ; (d) Pol- 
tava ; (e) terms of peace. 

IV. New Monarchy in England. — 1. Accession of George I. 2. Union 

with Scotland. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1688. Opening of war in Europe against Louis XIV. Revolution of 1088 

in England. 
1G89. Peter the Great begins his rule in Russia. 
1697. Peace of Ryswick ; end of King William's War. 

1699. Treaty of Karlowitz. 

1700. Philip, grandson of Louis XIV., made heir of Spanish heritage: 

beginning of war between Sweden and Russia. 
1704. Battle of Blenheim. 

1707. Act of Union between England and Scotland. 
1709. Battle of Poltava. 
1713. Peace of Utrecht. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : same as in preceding chapter, with Seeley, Expansion 

of England. 
Paragraphs : 
284. Causes of War : Wakeman, 256-261 ; Duruy, France, 440-441 ; 

Parkman's Count Frontenac. 
286. William III.: Traill, William III.; Henderson, Side Lights, 

group 22 ; important statutes, Adams and Stephens, Nos. 237- 

239, 243 ; on the Bank, Colby, No. 85 ; Glencoe, Colby, No. 84 ; 

Kendall, No. 102 ; Figgis, part 2 ; the succession, see genealogy 

below. 



286 DOWNFALL OF LOUIS THE GREAT 

Paragraphs : 

287. Ireland: O'Connor Morris, 177 ff. 

288, 289. Eastern Europe : Wakeman, Ch. 12. 

290. The Spanish Heritage : Kitchin, III., 274-291 ; Hume, 312-319 ; 

Dumy, 419-450 ; Figgis, 119 ff. ; see genealogy, page 272, and 
paragraph 274. 

291, 292. The War: Kitchin, III., 294 ff. ; Prussia's policy, Tuttle, I., 

288-302 ; Savoy and Portugal, Kitchin, 302-303 ; Blenheim, 
Colby, No. 86; Kendall, No. 115; Henderson, group 23; Figgis, 
136 ff. 

293, 294. Peter the Great, Charles XII. : Wakeman, 299-310 ; Ram- 
baud, II., Chs. 1-4; Schuyler, Peter the Great; Bain, Charles 
XII 

295. Utrecht: Kitchin, III., 337-342; Figgis, 187-190. 

Additional Reading: Parkman, France and England in America, 
especially La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, The Old 
Megime in Canada under Louis XIV., Count Frontenac and 
New France under Louis XIV. ; Hunter, Brief History of the 
Indian Peoples. 

Stuart and Hanoverian Families 

James I., 1 1625 

I 



1 

Charles I., f 1649 Elizabeth = Elector Palatine 

I j 1 Sophia = Elector of 

Charles II., 1 1685 James II., Mary = William of Orange _ I Hanover 

deposed 1688 ' | nu g n27 

| (William III.) 1714-1(27 

I i 1 

Marv= William III., Anne, James {Old Pretender), 1 1765 
T1694 T1702 tl714 ^__ i \ 

Charles Edward ( Young Henry, Cardinal, t 1807 

Pretender), 1 1788 

Special Review : ruin of the Stuarts, and end of arbitrary government 
in England, Chs. 15-17, period, 1625-1715. 

1. The Stuart theory of government upon (a) taxation, and (&) upon 
Church administration. 2. Parliamentary theory, as shown in 
Petition of Right, and (b) under Puritan influence, in the resolu- 
tions of 1629. 3. First struggle : (a) period of personal govern- 
ment, its characteristics ; (6) retaliatory measures of Long 
parliament, with (c) division about Church administration be- 



REVIEW 287 

tween Puritans and supporters of Charles I., resulting (72) in Civil 
War, and (e) eventually in military government under a dictator. 
4. Second struggle : (a) regulation of taxes under Charles II. ; 
(b) Church struggle changes, Puritans on the defensive, church- 
men alarmed at favor shown the Catholics ; (c) why James II. 
aroused more antagonism than Charles II. ; (d) Revolution of 
1G88, as a domestic political quarrel, and as part of the struggle 
against Louis XIV. 5. Parliament secures its victory : (a) by 
method of granting appropriations and by Mutiny Act ; (&) by 
system of party ministries ; (c) by Act of Succession, which 
incidentally forced the male line of Stuarts into the position of 
mere pretenders. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

NEW STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY 

297. European Rivalries. — Before the middle of the eigh- 
teenth century the struggle which William III. had brought 
on between England and France had been shifted from Europe to 
India and America. France was no longer what she had been 
under Louis XIV. and there was little prospect that her power 
in Europe would be dangerously increased. In the colonies it 
was the aggressiveness of the English rather than the ambi- 
tions of French colonial governors which was likely to bring 
on a crisis. The only exception was India, where the French, 
under the guidance of Dupleix, were at the outset more suc- 
cessful. Meanwhile a new power of the first rank had forced 
itself to the front. This was Prussia, organized by Frederick 
William I. and rendered victorious by Frederick the Great. 
At the same time Holland and Spain were sinking to second or 
third rank. 

298. Commercial Bubbles. — The wars of Louis XIV. had 
left all governments deeply in debt. France was practically 
bankrupt. This is no wonder, for she had been at war forty- 
seven out of the seventy-two years of Louis's reign. The 
French debt was five hundred million dollars at a time when 
money was four or five times as valuable as it is now. Even 
after peace was made the annual deficit increased. The Eng- 
lish debt was so large that the creditors doubted the ability of 
the government to pay, although the Bank of England, founded 
twenty years before, rendered this easier than in France. In 
each country the government attempted to lighten the burden 
by allying itself with vast speculations, and in each these 

288 



COMMERCIAL BUBBLES 289 

schemes failed so disastrously that they have been called 
" bubbles," — the Mississippi Bubble and the South Sea Bubble. 
A Scotchman, named John Law, tried to persuade the French 
regent to establish a bank somewhat like the Bank of Eng- 
land. The regent would not do this, but in 1716 authorized 
Law to found a private bank, three-quarters of the capital of 
which was to be paid with government notes then at a dis- 
count. The new bank received deposits, discounted business 
paper, and loaned notes of its own which it promptly redeemed 
in gold or silver whenever they were presented. The success 
of the bank convinced the regent that Law was a great finan- 
cier, and he ordered that it be made a government bank. 
Before this Law had bought up the Company of the West 
with its trade rights in Louisiana and in Canada. Again he 
had permitted the stock to be paid for largely with govern- 
ment notes. A little later he added the East India Com- 
pany and several others, organizing the whole in 1719 into 
the Company of the Indies. Any one who wished to buy 
shares in this must have four shares in the original company. 
The new company obtained from the government the contract 
to collect the indirect taxes and to coin the money ; it even 
undertook to pay the national debt. Such appearance of 
financial power deceived almost every one. There was a mad 
rush for shares. They rose from 550 livres to 18,000. When 
they had reached 5000, Law issued 300,000 more at this price. 
In order that there might be currency enough for these enor- 
mous transactions, he flooded the country with bank-notes, 
unmindful of the necessity of being able to redeem them, for 
he believed that if the government made them legal tender 
there would be no danger. The regent appointed him con- 
troller-general of the finances. Soon afterward the stock- 
holders, suspecting that they had paid too much for the 
company's shares, began to sell. The government could do 
nothing to check a sudden fall in the value of both shares and 
bank-notes. The first bank had been founded in 1716, the 
bubble burst in 1721. Law was obliged to leave France and 



290 NEW STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY 

a few years later died in poverty. The English South Sea 
company had been formed to trade with the Spanish colonies. 
By the Treaty of Utrecht, England gained the right to the 
contract for importing slaves into these colonies ; she had also 
received the privilege of sending a ship to the annual fair at 
Porto Bello. People thought that by buying the shares of the 
company they could have a part in the boundless wealth of 
the Indies. Parliament voted that those who held government 
notes of indebtedness could exchange these for shares. By 
August, 1720, shares which sold originally for £100 brought 
£1000. But they fell even quicker than they had risen. 
Several of the ministers who had lent government support to 
this wild enterprise were disgraced by its collapse. 

299. The Italian Question. — The settlement at the close of 
the War of the Spanish Succession had satisfied neither the 
Emperor Charles nor King Philip. Charles had gained most 
of the Italian heritage ; but he wished the rest, as well as 
Spain and the Indies. Philip V. wished to reunite the Italian 
lands to Spain. At this time there was no united Italian 
people, there were only Savoyards, or Piedmontese, Genoese, 
Lombards, and Venetians in the north, Neapolitans and Sicil- 
ians in the south, with subjects of the pope, the grand duke of 
Tuscany, and other princes in the centre. The Genoese hated 
the Piedmontese, whom the Lombards also distrusted, because 
the duke of Savoy seemed bent on absorbing one state after 
another. Venice had lost its energy and seemed merely 
anxious to keep out of the quarrels which involved its neigh- 
bors. The emperor was already negotiating to exchange 
Sardinia for Sicily, and the duke of Savoy, so recently made 
king of Sicily, was not strong enough to refuse so bad a 
bargain. The king of Spain was determined to prevent the 
exchange. His queen, Elizabeth Farnese, was the only heir 
of the duke of Parma and feared any increase of Austrian 
influence in the peninsula. Philip sent a fleet and troops in 
1717 to seize Sardinia, and a second, a year later, to seize 
Sicily ; but this brought England, Holland, the emperor, and, 



THE POLISH SUCCESSION 291 

strangely enough, even France into alliance against him. The 
reason for the French action was this. It was not expected 
that the little Louis XV. would live, and the Regent D'Orleans 
desired to succeed to the throne. Philip of Spain resolved to 
make good his own title to the French throne, and in conse- 
quence the regent was ready to oppose Philip's other schemes. 
Before such an alliance Philip was obliged in 1720 to yield. 
The emperor gained Sicily, and the duke of Savoy became 
king of Sardinia, a title which his descendants retained until 
they exchanged it for the title of king of Italy. Philip was 
acknowledged, even by the emperor, as king of Spain, and 
his wife's rights in Italy were safeguarded. 

300. The Polish Succession. — By the Peace of Nystad, in 
1721, Russia had gained the eastern shore of the Baltic as far 
south as Courland. The Sweden of Gustavus Adolphus and 
of Charles XII. ceased to be a dangerous rival. The candidate 
of Charles for the Polish throne, Stanislaus, had, with the aid of 
Russia, been driven away and Augustus of Saxony reigned un- 
disturbed until his death. Meantime Stanislaus had gained a 
new supporter in France, for his daughter Marie had become 
the wife of Louis XV. Augustus died in 1733, and immediately 
France secured the election of Stanislaus. Russia and Austria 
resolved that Augustus III. of Saxony should be king ; and so 
the War of the Polish Succession began. This war was im- 
portant because it strengthened Russian influence in Poland, 
but especially because it led to further changes in Italy. France 
and Spain entered into the Family Compact by which the two 
Bourbon kings agreed to defend each other's interests. In the 
Italian campaigns the king of Sardinia helped the French and 
the Spaniards. When peace was made in 1735 Stanislaus 
received the duchies of Bar and Lorraine in lieu of Poland. 
This was the same as giving them to France, of which his only 
child was queen. The duke of Lorraine was to become grand 
duke of Tuscany on the death of the last of the Medicis. Parma 
and Piacenza were to go to the emperor, but Don Carlos, son of 
Elizabeth Farnese and Philip V., was to receive the kingdom 



292 NEW STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY 

of the Two Sicilies, as Naples and Sicily were called. The 
king of Sardinia took as his reward one or two strips along 
his eastern frontier. This settlement lasted for over a century, 
in spite of temporary changes. 

301. England and Spain. — Meanwhile the hatred of English- 
men for Spain became uncontrollable. It was caused by the 
conflicts between English traders and the Spanish colonial 
officers. Like most other countries in the eighteenth century, 
Spain did not allow foreigners to trade with her colonies. Only 
as a result of war had she permitted the English to send a ship 
to the annual fair at Porto Bello and to possess the contract 
for the importation of slaves into her colonies. The English 
merchants did not content themselves with sending a single 
ship ; they despatched others which transferred their cargoes 
to this ship by night. They also smuggled goods into many 
places besides Porto Bello. The Spaniards had a right to com- 
plain, for the English government would not have allowed 
Spanish ships to trade in New York harbor. But when English 
smugglers were caught and shut up in Spanish prisons, there 
was a great outcry in England. This was increased by Captain 
Jenkins, who declared that the Spaniards had cut off his ear, 
and, to prove it, showed a committee of the Commons an ear 
which he had carefully preserved in a box. Sir Robert Wal- 
pole, who had been England's chief minister for nearly twenty 
years, and who thought peace was altogether the better policy, 
was in 1739 forced to yield to the clamor of the war party. In 
this way the war " of Jenkins's ear " was begun. Before long 
it was merged in a much greater struggle. 

302. An English Prime Minister. — Although Walpole was 
really prime minister in the later sense of the words, he always 
repudiated the title. He had become first lord of the treas- 
ury and chancellor of the exchequer in 1721. At that time 
the ministers regarded themselves as all equal in authority. 
For some years the king had ceased to preside over meetings of 
the cabinet, chiefly because George I. could not understand Eng- 
lish. Walpole, as first lord of the treasury, held the purse- 



AN ENGLISH PRIME MINISTER 



293 



strings, and he actually had greater influence with the king 
than the other ministers. After a time his "primacy" was 




House of Commons, 1741. 

The view faces the Speaker, with the Ministry on his right and the Opposition 
on his left. At this time the House of Commons sat in St. Stephens. 

undisputed. This was important, because, since the reign of 
William III., the ministers had in several instances been really 
chosen rather by the House of Commons than by the king. 



294 NEW STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY 

William was obliged to take a Tory ministry and Anne a Whig 
ministry at a time when otherwise they could not have per- 
suaded the House to do what they wished. If the ministers 
were to represent the House of Commons, it was well that they 
should be united under a single leadership. In this way, also, 
the king was more likely to accept their advice, and the day 
had not yet come when he must accept it whether he liked it or 
not. Walpole always worked through the House of Commons, 
but he built up his majority in it by rewarding his followers 
with offices, and, probably, by directly purchasing their votes. 
When at last, in 1742, a majority even of one vote was brought 
together against him, he resigned. 

303. Prussia. — While Walpole was strengthening the re- 
sources of England, another statesman was creating out of the 
scattered dominions of Brandenburg-Prussia a powerful mon- 
archy, capable of becoming the rival of the House of Hapsburg 
and of taking a place among the strongest states of Europe. This 
statesman was King Frederick William I., who ascended the 
throne in 1713. His father, the first king of Prussia, had loved 
the pomp of royalty. Frederick William cared rather for a large, 
well-trained army and a full treasury. His first act was to dis- 
miss useless officials and flunkeys, cut down the expenses of the 
court, and set an example of rigid economy and tireless indus- 
try. When he discovered that the nobles of East Prussia were 
paying only one-sixth of the taxes due, he ordered a new 
assessment for the whole province. In those days the royal 
domains amounted to about one-third of all the land in the 
kingdom, and the income from them equalled the income from 
the taxes. By requiring a more careful management of the 
forests, by improving the methods of cultivating the fields, 
he added two million dollars to this source of revenue. Lands 
desolated by war or pestilence he resettled with colonists. 
When the Protestants of Salzburg were driven from their 
homes by an archbishop more anxious for the unity of the 
faith than for the prosperity of his people, Frederick William 
sent commissioners to take them under his protection, treating 



THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 295 

them as his subjects from the moment they accepted his offer 
of homes, paying the expenses of their journey, and compelling 
the archbishop to indemnify them for their losses. He also 
sought to guard from the tyranny of the lords the peasants 
who had finally sunk to the condition of serfs. These serfs 
were not as well off as the medigeval serfs in France or Eng- 
land, for they could be driven from their lands. The king 
attempted, especially on the domain lands, to free them from 
this danger, but his efforts were thwarted by officials who 
sympathized with the lords. His chief anxiety was to have 
enough recruits for his army, and he wanted the army to be 
composed of his subjects rather than of foreign mercenaries. 
He assigned to each regiment a certain district from which to 
recruit its ranks, and compelled the sons of nobles to attend 
his military school to be trained as officers. At his death, in 
1740, his army numbered eighty thousand, and in his treasury 
were twenty-five million dollars. The work of Frederick Will- 
iam enabled his son, Frederick the Great, to use the oppor- 
tunity offered by the emperor's death, in 1740, to add to 
Prussia's territories and to show that the new kingdom must 
henceforth be reckoned with. 

304. The Austrian Succession. — Charles VI. left as heir to 
his estates a daughter, Maria Theresa, whose husband, Francis 
of Lorraine, had become grand duke of Tuscany. He had feared 
that his death would be the signal for an attempt to divide the 
lands of the Austrian Hapsburgs, as the death of Charles II. 
of Spain had led to the division of the Spanish Hapsburg heri- 
tage. His own states readily agreed to accept as their sover- 
eign the young heiress, and he had persuaded the different 
European courts to guarantee this arrangement. No sooner 
was he dead than nearly all these courts discovered some rea- 
son for repudiating their promises. The elector of Bavaria 
wanted Bohemia, the elector of Saxony Moravia, the king of 
Spain the Farnese inheritance in northern Italy. France saw 
an opportunity to tear up the Treaty of Utrecht and to place 
upon the imperial throne the elector of Bavaria, although it 



296 NEW STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY 

had been expected that Francis of Lorraine would be elected 
emperor. But the greatest menace to the young queen came 
from another quarter. Frederick of Prussia saw that this was 
the time to seize Silesia, a fair country which his ancestors had 
disputed with the Hapsburgs. He thought it would be best 
to march his armies into Silesia and to negotiate afterward. 
Such were the causes of the War of the Austrian Succession, 
which began in December, 1740, two months after the emper- 
or's death. By 1744 a war between England and France had 
made the struggle more general. The only one to receive any 
gains was Frederick, who forced Maria Theresa to cede Silesia. 
France succeeded in making the elector of Bavaria emperor, 
but when he died was unable to prevent the election of Fran- 
cis of Lorraine. Although French armies gained victories, 
they were offset by the triumph of England on the sea, from 
which French merchantmen were driven. Nothing could be 
done to save the colonies from English attacks. The war was 
ended in 1748 by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

305. America and India. — In America this war was called 
King George's War. Shortly after it began, Governor Shirley 
of Massachusetts, with an army of volunteers, captured the 
fortress of Louisburg, which commanded the entrance of the 
St. Lawrence River When peace was made, the colonists 
were chagrined to hear that Louisburg had been given up in 
exchange for Madras, a trading station in India which the 
French had captured. Besides Madras the English East India 
Company had important stations at Bombay and Calcutta. 
One of the French stations was at Pondicherri on the Coro- 
mandel coast south of Madras. Just before the war began, 
the new governor, Franqois Dupleix, had carefully fortified 
Pondicherri. Owing to the help his predecessor had rendered 
to the nawab of the Karnatik, he was considered a native 
prince as well as manager of a trading station. With the aid 
of a French fleet he captured Madras. When the nawab tried 
to compel him to give it up, he defeated the natives with his 
little army of Europeans and trained natives or sepoys. This 



SUMMARY 297 

made him feared and respected throughout southern India. 
His prestige was increased when he succeeded in beating off a 
British attack on Pondicherri. The peace satisfied him no 
better than it did the New Englanders, for each was obliged 
to surrender a cherished prize. Above all he wished to keep 
his army together and for this purpose he began to take part 
in the struggles of the native princes for supremacy. Soon, 
though there was peace between England and France, war 
began again in India between the French and English East 
India companies. In America, also, there were causes of 
trouble, for the boundaries between the French and the Eng- 
lish colonies had never been settled. Each claimed the Ohio 
and the Mississippi valleys. Consequently in India and in 
America, as well as in Europe, the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
was little more than a truce. 



SUMMARY 

I. Commercial Bubbles. — 1. John Law : (a) indebtedness of France ; 
(b) Law's bank ; (c) his "mergers" ; (d) why the bubble burst. 
2. South Sea Bubble : («) English desire to share the wealth of 
the Indies; (b) government lends support to scheme, consequences. 
II. Struggle for Territory. — 1. Echoes of War of Spanish Succes- 
sion : («) divisions of Italy ; (b) Austria's desire for Sicily ; (c) 
Spain wishes to recover all her heritage; (d) settlement of question, 
origin of kingdom of Sardinia. 2. Polish Succession : («) France 
takes Sweden's place in Polish affairs ; (6) use of Lorraine as 
indemnity for King Stanislaus ; this, virtually, annexation to 
France ; (c) further settlements in Italy. 3. England and Spain : 
(a) Spanish colonial policy ; (&) conduct of English sailors ; (c) 
outcry against Spain. 4. The Austrian Succession : (a) develop- 
ment of Prussia under Frederick William L; (6) desire to divide 
the Hapsburg heritage ; (c) Frederick the Great in Silesia ; (d) 
England and France drawn into struggle ; (e) consequences in 
England and America. 
III. Constitutional Development in England. — 1. Walpole's career. 
2. Advantage of the system of government which he helped to 
organize. 



298 NEW STRUGGLES FOB SUPREMACY 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1720. Beginning of kingdom of Sardinia. 
1735. Lorraine becomes virtually part of France. 

1740. Accession of Frederick II. in Prussia ; beginning of War of Aus- 
trian Succession. 
1748. Peace of Aix-la-C Impel le. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General References, in addition to histories of separate states already 
mentioned: Hassall, Balance of Power ; Parkman's Half Cen- 
tury of Conflict ; Hunter's Brief History of the Indian Peoples. 

Paragraphs : 

298. Mississippi Bubble : Perkins, France under the Regency, Chs. 

13, 14 ; Parkinan, Half Century of Conflict, I., 304 ft; South Sea 
Bubble, Lecky, I., 348-351 ; Colby, No. 88. 

299. Italy : Hassall, 49-56. 

300. Poland: Morfill ; in relation to France, Kitchin, III., 400-405. 

301. SpaViish Colonial Trade : Bourne, Spain in America, Chs. 18, 19. 

302. Walpole : Macy, Ch. 36 ; Morley's Walpole ; Colby, No. 90. 

303. Prussia : Frederick William I., Henderson, II., Ch. 3 ; Tuttle, I., 

Chs. 10, 11. See' paragraphs 100, 156, 202, 238, 250, 276, 
291, for previous growth of Prussia. 

304. Austrian Succession: Frederick's claim on Silesia, Tuttle, II., 

61-67 ; French policy, Perkins, I., 176 ft". ; influence of sea power, 
Mahan, 264, 279-280 ; Colby, 93. 

305. India: career of Dupleix, Perkins, I., Ch. 9; Hunter, 176-179; 

Malleson, Dupleix. 

Additional Reading : Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth 
Century, 8 vols.; Carlyle, Frederick the Great, 6 vols.; Seeley, 
Expansion of England ; Perkins, Louis XV., 2 vols. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 

306. The Struggles Renewed. — The Peace of 1748 did 
not last long because the Austrians did not consider Silesia 
permanently lost, and because the English and the French 
had postponed rather than settled their conflicts in India 
and America. The Seven Years' War, called in America the 
French and Indian War, was really the second part of the 
struggle which began when Frederick II. invaded Silesia. 
Shortly after it opened France abandoned her ancient rivalry 
with the House of Hapsburg and put her armies at its disposal 
to accomplish the ruin of the new Prussian state. Weakened 
by the double task of a struggle in Europe and one on the sea 
and in the colonies, she paid for the venture by the loss of her 
North American colonies and by the destruction of her power 
in India. Her finances became so burdened that discontent 
hurried her people toward revolution. England's success was 
almost as ruinous as the failure of France, for it led the 
English parliament to try to strengthen her new empire by 
levying taxes upon the colonists for the support of a standing 
army in America, a policy which provoked them to insurrec- 
tion. Prussia maintained her position in Silesia, and Austria 
was obliged henceforth to suffer this dangerous rivalry for the 
control of Germany. 

307. Dupleix. — The news of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
put an end to the war between the English at Madras and 
the French at Pondicherri, but it did not prevent their fight- 
ing as partisans of rival native princes. India was nominally 
under the rule of the Mughal emperor of Delhi. In the Dec- 

299 



300 COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 

can, the peninsula south of the Nabacla River, a governor or 
vassal king reigned with his capital at Haiderabad. One of 
his vassals was the nawab of the Karnatik, whose capital was 
at Arcot. These vassals of high and low degree were as 
independent of their emperor as were the vassals of Charles 
the Simple in the Frankish empire of the tenth century. Such 
a weak government offered an opportunity for pushing the 
influence of an outside power backed by well-trained soldiers. 
In 1749, at the time when Dupleix should have dismissed his 
soldiers, he saw an opportunity to employ them in furthering 
the cause of claimants of the thrones of Haiderabad and Arcot. 
His little French army, supported by carefully taught sepoys, 
was too strong for the undisciplined hordes of the native 
princes. When his candidate was undisputed master at Hai- 
derabad, he was himself looked upon throughout southern 
India as the " ever victorious." In the Karnatik only, he was 
not triumphant. The English took up the cause of a rival 
nawab, and Dupleix was unable to dislodge them from Trichi- 
nopili, a stronghold south of Pondicherri. It was in France, 
however, that his plans were undone. He was considered by 
the managers of the East India Company and by many influ- 
ential men as a wild dreamer. The French government was 
also anxious to avoid a new war with England. Dupleix 
seemed on the point of success in the Karnatik when a com- 
missioner arrived in India, in 1754, authorized to arrest him 
and to abandon nearly all the advantages which he had gained 
by diplomacy or by war. He was taken back to France to die 
in poverty and disgrace. His English enemies imitated his 
methods, and to this they owed some of their success in creat- 
ing an empire in India. 

308. Fighting in America. — The sacrifice of Dupleix failed 
to prevent war with England. In May, 1754, two months 
before his arrest, there had been a fight in the Virginia 
woods which made a conflict inevitable. Both the English 
and the French claimed the valley of the Ohio and of the 
Mississippi. This region had been explored first by the French 



AUSTRIAN PLANS OF VENGEANCE 301 

in their efforts to discover the mouth of the Mississippi. They 
had made a settlement at New Orleans and had several trad- 
ing stations at Kaskaskia, Detroit, and other places. Un- 
fortunately for them all the inhabitants of Canada and the 
Mississippi Valley together did not number a tenth as many 
as the English colonists along the Atlantic from Massachusetts 
to Georgia. These colonists claimed the western valleys. 
Several of their original charters had mentioned the South Sea 
as their western boundary. Such a question was more likely 
to be settled by war than by argument. When Virginia 
granted land on the Ohio to an Ohio Company, the French 
aroused themselves to prevent an invasion of their domain. 
On the site of Pittsburg they constructed Fort Duquesne, 
named after the governor of Canada. It was a portion of the 
French force sent to accomplish this task that fought with a 
party of Virginians under George Washington. Although war 
was not formally declared for two years, both the French and 
the English strengthened their forces in America. A small 
English army under General Braddock was sent in 1755 to cap- 
ture Fort Duquesne, but it was defeated and its commander 
mortally wounded. On the sea the English seized French 
merchant vessels and even war-ships. Not until after this 
did Louis declare war. 

309. Austrian Plans of Vengeance. — When Frederick II. 
discovered that Maria Theresa was planning to reconquer 
Silesia, he looked about for allies. He knew that the Tsarina 
Elizabeth was anxious to destroy him and that the elector of 
Saxony, who was also king of Poland, was in the plot. 
Sweden with her Pomeranian lands was his natural enemy. 
During the War of the Austrian Succession he had been little 
helped by the French. He concluded that his safest course 
would be to ally himself with the king of England, who desired 
that the electorate of Hanover should have a strong defender 
in Germany. At first the agreement with England went no 
further than a pledge, taken by both allies, to keep foreign 
armies out of Germany. Frederick did not look upon this 



302 COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 

agreement with England as an abandonment of his alliance 
with France, but Louis XV. considered it as a new and more 
startling example of faithlessness. Twice during the previous 
war, Frederick had left France in the lurch, making a separate 
peace with Austria. His conduct was a strong argument for 
giving up the old enmity with the Hapsburgs and making an 
alliance with them. To Maria Theresa, if she hoped to recover 
Silesia, such an alliance was necessary now that England had 
joined Frederick II. A treaty was made in 1756 which 
pledged the two countries to defend each other's territories. 
This of itself amounted to a revolution in diplomacy because 
France had opposed Austria ever since the marriage of Mary 
of Burgundy and the Emperor Maximilian. A year later it 
was transformed into an alliance to aid Austria in the recovery 
of Silesia. Although France was promised a few towns in the 
Netherlands, the treaty was a fatal blunder, for France needed 
all her resources to save her colonies and trading stations from 
the English. Already the tsarina had allied herself to Maria 
Theresa, on the understanding that Russia was to have 
East Prussia. Russia and Sweden acceded to the second treaty 
between France and Austria, determined to reduce Frederick 
to the position held by his ancestor, the Great Elector. 

310. War, 1756. — Frederick, finding himself threatened 
from every side, tried to end the war by a sudden occupation 
of Saxony, followed by an attack upon the Austrian s before 
the Russians could come to their assistance. Although the 
Saxons resisted long enough to give Austria time to prepare, 
their army was forced to surrender and to become a part of the 
Prussian army. Frederick's attack upon Austria failed disas- 
trously. His troops were beaten by the Austrians while the 
Russians defeated another of his armies. By the middle of 
1757 his cause seemed lost. Even Berlin was raided. The 
Hanoverian army had been beaten by the French, who remained 
in possession of the electorate, threatening Brandenburg from 
the west. Suddenly the situation changed. In November and 
December Frederick gained the victory of Rossbach over the 



FRENCH DEFEATS IN INDIA AND AMERICA 303 




French and of Leuthen over the Austrians. Jnst at this time 
William Pitt, a great war minister, took charge of English 
affairs. Pitt made a new treaty with Frederick, promising to 
pay him. £670,000 a year, and to send more troops to Europe. 
But the cordon of enemies drawn about Frederick's little king- 
dom seemed still to threaten him 
with ruin. Victories and defeats 
alternated. His subjects were be- 
coming exhausted. The English 
subsidy was not enough to meet 
the enormous expenses. Fortu- 
nately for him the allies distrusted 
one another so much that they 
could never quite agree how best 
to attack him. Louis XV. persisted 
in intriguing in Poland against the 
Kussian party, and consequently 
the tsarina would not allow the 
Russian troops to march too far 
beyond the Polish frontiers. More- 
over, France was crippled by a 
constant succession of disasters in 
the colonies. 

311. French Defeats in India 
and America. — These disasters might not have occurred had 
the French not been occupied with the war against Prussia. 
The English had the advantage that their war fleet was larger, 
so that they could more easily forward soldiers to America 
and to India. In America, because of the energy of the French 
commander, Montcalm, the French were at first successful. In 
1758 numbers began to tell. Louisburg and Fort Duquesne 
were obliged to surrender. The year following General Wolfe 
defeated Montcalm on the heights above Quebec. Wolfe and 
Montcalm were both mortally wounded. Quebec surrendered, 
and shortly afterward all Canada submitted. The French 
colonies in the West India Islands were also taken, one 



William Pitt. 

First Earl of Chatham. Born, 
1708; died, 1778. Entered 
parliament in 1735. Leading 
member of the Newcastle min- 
istry in 1757, during the Seven 
Years' War. His son, William 
Pitt, was prime minister from 
1783 to 1801 and again from 
1804 until his death in 1806. 



304 



COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 



after another. In India the French had not lost all the 
advantages which Dupleix had secured. They tried to assist 
the subahdar or governor of Bengal in his war with the Eng- 
lish, whose station was at Calcutta, but the subahdar would 
not take their advice. Early in the war, in June, 1756, one 

hundred and forty-six English 
captives were nearly all suffo- 
cated by being crowded into 
a small prison, the " Black 
Hole of Calcutta." Led by 
Bobert Clive, the English de- 
feated the subahdar at Plassey 
a year later, and, after the 
manner of Dupleix, replaced 
him by a candidate of their 
own. But unlike Dupleix, 
they demanded of the new 
ruler so much money that 
not all the gold and jewels in 
his great treasure-house could 
half pay the sum. Clive, a 
few years before, had been a 
clerk upon a small salary ; now 
he received £200,000, and 
land with an annual income 
of £27,000. So greedy did 
the English become after their early successes that whole vil- 
lages fled at the approach of even English merchants. While 
Clive was gaining control in Bengal, Eyre Coote's victory at 
Wandiwash had opened the road to Pondicherri, which was 
obliged to surrender in 1761. This was the end of the French 
empire in Tndia. 

312. Peace. — In 1762 France made a last effort by renew- 
ing the Family Compact with Spain, but this only involved 
Spain in her misfortunes. Havana and Manila were captured 
by English fleets. Meanwhile Pitt had resigned and the new 




Robert ('live. 

Born, 1725; died, 1774. Entered 
service of East India Company as 
clerk in 1743. Captured Arcot, cap- 
ital of the Karnatik, in 1751, block- 
ing the plans <>i' Dupleix. Governor 
of Bengal, 1758, 1765-67. Made 
Baron Clive of Plassey in 1760. 



FRENCH FINANCES 305 

ministry was anxious for peace. The subsidy promised Fred- 
erick was no longer paid. The European states were so ex- 
hausted that peace was a mere question of detail. The treaty 
between England and France was signed at Paris in 1763. 
France lost all her colonial possessions in America save a few 
islands in the West Indies and off the coast of Newfoundland. 
She gave Louisiana to Spain, because Spain was forced to cede 
Florida to England. In India the French towns were returned 
by the English on the understanding that henceforth they were 
to remain simple trading stations. The Treaty of Huberts- 
burg ended the war on the Continent. By it Maria Theresa 
abandoned the hope of recovering Silesia. All the men and 
all the treasure lost in this part of the seven years' struggle 
had been wasted. The only power that had anything but losses 
to show for the immense effort was England. Her control of 
the sea was unquestioned, and her colonies were rivalled only 
by those of Spain. 

313. French Finances. — The expenses of the war had greatly 
increased the English national debt, but they threw the finances 
of France into hopeless disorder. Even before the war began 
there was an annual deficit of about seventy-five million livres, 
equal at the present value of money to almost as many dollars. 
It became necessary to levy another " twentieth," to which a 
third was added before the end of the war. So many persons 
succeeded in escaping this tax that it produced little revenue. 
The only remedy would have been a thorough-going change in 
the system of taxes, so that the burden could be distributed 
equally over nobles, officials, townsmen, and peasants. Had 
the government attempted such a change, it would have been 
resisted by the judges in the parlements. They had come to 
look upon themselves as the last defence of the community 
against the despotism of the government officers. Whenever 
the king's council ordered new taxes collected, they refused to 
register the decrees until expressly commanded by the king 
to do this. Unfortunately they opposed with equal energy 
any attempt to shift the burden from the shoulders of the 



306 COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 

third estate to those of the nobles or the clergy, for as judges 
they enjoyed the same privileges as the nobles. The king had 
promised that when the war ended the new taxes should cease, 
but he could not keep this promise, for the debts must be paid. 
Accordingly, the parlements joined in the outcry against the 
collection of the " twentieths." Their popularity was all the 
greater when the king's advisers began to scale down his debts 
or postpone payment. Finally the king resolved to reorganize 
the courts and to do away with the power of the judges to 
resist royal decrees. Such a reform was really desirable, 
although it looked as if the king were removing a last obstacle 
to complete despotism. If the parlements thwarted every 
attempt to change the system of taxation, France would be 
driven to bankruptcy and revolution. It was in 1771 that the 
new courts were organized. There had not been time to see 
how they would work before Louis XV. died, three years later. 
314. The English Colonies. — For England the consequence 
of the war was quarrels over taxation, but not so much with 
her subjects at home as with her colonists in America. The 
English method of managing colonies was generous in com- 
parison with the policy of other governments, but it was 
guided by the common notion that colonies existed for the 
benefit of the mother country. For this reason the colonists 
had not been allowed to trade wherever they pleased, and the 
manufacture of articles which the English merchants wished 
to sell to them was restricted. One English statesman 
declared that the colonists should not be allowed to manu- 
facture even a horseshoe nail. At the same time their charters 
allowed them to have assemblies of representatives which 
could make the laws and vote the taxes. Often these assem- 
blies got into controversies with the royal governors, much 
like the old controversies between parliament and the kings. 
When parliament tried to cut off the trade between New Eng- 
land and the French West Indies by levying a heavy duty on 
molasses, the New Englanders continued their trade in defi- 
ance of the royal officers. Even before 1763 the Navigation 



EASTERN EUROPE 307 

Acts and similar laws had created considerable discontent 
in the colonies. When the war was over, the advisers of 
George III. concluded that there should be a royal army in 
America, which would be useful not only in defending the 
colonies against sudden attack, but in enabling the governors 
to enforce the revenue laws whether the local assemblies or 
the inhabitants liked it or not. The army, the ministry said, 
should be paid for by the colonists, but the necessary taxes 
should be voted by parliament rather than by the colonial 
assemblies. It was strange to expect that the colonists, who 
had been allowed to tax themselves for over a hundred years, 
would suffer this right to be taken away by parliament. Par- 
liament had already imposed customs, but even these had 
been systematically dodged by American merchants. An at- 
tempt to increase them would be like the attempt of James I. 
to raise the rates of impositions, and an attempt to collect 
direct taxes was like his son's collection of ship money. In 
each case the government needed the money, but parliament 
had contended, as the colonists were now contending, that it 
should be obtained in the customary way. Unhappily parlia- 
ment did not discover that it was playing again the vain and 
tragic part of the Stuart kings. A few wise men like Pitt and 
Burke saw the blunder, but the majority of Englishmen in 
and out of parliament believed that its authority must be 
upheld in the colonies as well as at home. For this reason 
the ministry was able to pass the Stamp Act and the tax on 
tea. By 1774 the quarrel had gone so far that the government 
was obliged to put Massachusetts under military rule. The 
colonists retorted by sending delegates to a congress at Phila- 
delphia to consider the proper method of defending themselves 
against such tyrannies. 

315. Eastern Europe. — While Prance and England were 
absorbed by their difficulties, eastern Europe was brought to 
the verge of a general war by the schemes of Russia in Poland. 
The Russians had taken advantage of the fact that the Polish 
monarchy was elective, to place their candidates upon the 



308 



COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 



throne, and to keep the Poles from giving the country a better 
organization. At the death of the last Saxon king, in 1763, 
Frederick II. and the Tsarina Catherine II. had united to 
procure the election of Catherine's favorite, Stanislaus Ponia- 
towski. These intrigues offended the party which was jealous 
for national independence, and particularly the more ardent 
Catholics, who did not wish to share their privileges with 



MAP NO. 19. 




FIRST PARTITION 

OF POLAND 

1772 



Prussia's gains 
] Austria's gains 

I A I'Wllil'l Russia's gaina 

The Territory indicated by 

heavy black line is Silesia, 

conquered by Frederick the 

Great from Austria in the war 

-v of the Austrian Succession 






_:><> 

S A, 



either Protestants or members of the Greek Church. It was 
a custom in Poland that such parties should form a "Con- 
federation," and remain in arms until their demands were 
granted. The new group was called the Confederation of 
Bar, and Catherine sent an army to destroy it in 1768. The 
Turks were already irritated against the Eussians because 
Russian emissaries were stirring up the Christian peoples 
of the Balkan Peninsula, and the invasion of Poland led them 
to declare war upon Catherine, lest she gain too much power 



SUMMARY 309 

on their borders. At first Catherine's armies were successful, 



and the ruin of the Turkish empire seemed at hand. Austria 
was alarmed, and she resolved to prevent the Russian army 
crossing the Danube. Frederick thought that this controversy 
might involve him also in war, and he proposed that Catherine 
should help herself to a part of Poland instead of despoiling 
the Turks. Of course, if Catherine agreed to this, Prussia 
and Austria must also have shares, so that the balance of 
power might be preserved. Frederick found a number of old 
Prussian claims with which to cover up the robbery, and he 
suggested that Maria Theresa hunt for similar rights in her 
own archives. The result was a treaty of partition in 1772. 
The most important land which Prussia took was West Prus- 
sia, connecting the old duchy with Brandenburg. Austria's 
principal share was Galicia. Russia received the greater part 
of what was called " White Russia," which had been formerly 
taken from the Russians by the duke of Lithuania. Except 
for the nobles this district was peopled wholly by Russians. 
In all the annexed districts the people were no worse off than 
before, because they had been serfs much oppressed by their 
lords. Indeed, Frederick the Great endeavored to better their 
lot. Although Poland was robbed to save Turkey, the 
Turks were obliged, two years later, in 1774, by the Treaty 
of Kainardji, to acknowledge the independence of the Tartar 
khans of the Crimean region, which prepared the way for its 
annexation to Russia shortly afterward. Russia also protected 
by treaty the rights of the Greek Christians within the Turkish 
empire, so that she gained the privilege of interfering in 

Turkish affairs. 

SUMMARY 

I. Obstacles to Peace in Europe, India, and America. — 1. India: 
(a) condition of India in 1748 ; (b) means by which Dupleix 
established French supremacy in the Deccan ; (c) causes of his 
eventual ruin. 2. America : (a) French claims and occupation ; 
(6) English claims ; (c) the first clash ; (d) war in time of peace. 
3. Austria and Prussia : (a) Austrian plans for revenge ; (6) allies 
changing sides ; (c) the blunder made by France. 



310 COLONIAL EMPIRES GAINED AND LOST 

II. The Seven Years' War. — 1. Frederick the Great : («) near ruin ; 

(6) things which saved him. 2. In America and India: (a) why 
France was at a disadvantage ; (b) victories of Clive ; (c) use 
made of his victories. 3. Terms of peace : (a) in the colonies , 
(6) case of Louisiana ; (c) Silesia. 

III. Consequences. — 1. France : (a) increase of debt, with new taxes ; 

(b) who paid these taxes ; (c) partial bankruptcy ; (d) attempt 
of Louis to reorganize courts. 2. England : (a) desire that 
American colonies should bear part of the burdens of empire ; 
(6) difficulties about raising this money through taxation ; (c) Eng- 
lish attempts to restrict American manufactures ; (cZ) the mean- 
ing of the struggle. 

IV. Eastern Europe. — 1, Poland: (a) Russian interference in Polish 

affairs ; (b) consequent action of the Turks ; (c) reason for scheme 
to divide Poland ; (d) gains of each of the three parties to the 
treaty. 2. Russian advance toward the Black Sea. 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1754. Ruin of Dupleix in India : first fighting between French and Eng- 
lish in America. 

1756. Beginning of Seven Years' War. 

1757. Battle of Plassey. 
1759. Capture of Quebec. 
1763. Peace of Paris. 

1772. First partition of Poland. 

1774. First Continental Congress. Treaty of Kainardji. 



FURTHER STUDY 
General Reading : see ch. 18. 

Paragraphs : 

307. Dupleix : see references, 305. 

308. French and English in America : especially Parkman, Mont- 

calm, and Wolfe, I., 20-35. 

309. Change of French Policy : Perkins, Louis XV., Ch. 12 ; Kitchin, 

III., 451-455 ; previous relations of France and Austria, para- 
graphs 187, 200, 206. 212. 246, 249. 250. 284, 290, 304. 

310. Crisis in Frederick's Affairs: Henderson, II., 159-179; Tuttle, 
IV., Ch. 3. 



SUMMARY 311 

Paragraphs : 

311. Quebec : Colby, No. 95 ; Kendall, No. 118 ; English in India, 

Hunter, 179-186 ; Malleson, Clive, 75 ff. ; Colby, No. 94 ; Ken- 
dall, No. 117 ; Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, III., 
513 ff. ; war on the sea, Mahan. 

312. Peace : terms, Hassall, 276-279. 

313. French Finances : Adams, Growth of French Nation, 248-249. 

314. English Colonial Policy, after 1763 : English estimates in, Eger- 

ton, 177 ff. ; Lecky, American Revolution, Ch. I. ; Trevelyan, I., 
27 ff. ; control of commerce and industry, Beer, Commercial Pol- 
icy of England toward America ; Seeley, Lecture 4 ; contemporary 
discussion, Hart, II., Nos. 130-133, 138-153 ; Lee, Nos. 202-205. 

315. First Partition of Poland : Hassall, 303-318 ; Cambridge Modem 

History, VIII., 521-524. 

Additional Reading : Egerton, Short History of British Colonial Pol- 
icy ; Trevelyan, American Revolution, 3 vols. ; Lecky, American 
Revolution ; see also Ch. 18. 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

316. From 1774 to 1789.— The Seven Years' War did not 
end the struggle between France and England. The French 
took advantage of the revolt of the English colonists to humble 
their ancient enemy. The chief result to France was an enthu- 
siasm for liberty and equality awakened by fighting for the 
liberties of the Americans. The sort of equality especially 
needed in France was equality before the tax-gatherer. Un- 
fortunately there were so many persons, nobles, clergy, and 
thousands of office-holders, who were partly or wholly exempt 
from the payment of burdensome taxes, that each time a min- 
ister seriously undertook to remedy the evil he was speedily 
overthrown. Nothing but revolution would be strong enough 
to sweep away such special privileges. In other countries 
monarchs, as well meaning as Louis XVI. and of greater 
capacity, sought to substitute a single master, the State, for all 
the masters which the feudal system had created and who still 
clung to the remnants of their former greatness. These mon- 
archs also sought to improve the conditions of life for their 
subjects, and therefore were called "enlightened despots.'' 
In England the inventive genius of a few men was devising 
instruments, — the steam-engine, the spinning-jenny, and the 
power-loom, which in later years did more than kings to push 
old rights and privileges into the background. 

317. A New King in France, 1774. — Louis XV? had left a 
heritage of trouble for his grandson, Louis XVI. His life had 
been so evil, even in old age, that the people had almost ceased 
to reverence the monarchy. Taxes were burdensome and debts 
were unpaid. Many were loud in complaint who were not 

312 



TURGOtS REFORMS 313 

ready to approve any plan of betterment which should cost 
them one of their privileges. The young king was well mean- 
ing and intelligent, but was not strong enough to persist in the 
face of opposition from his courtiers, and especially from the 
queen, Marie Antoinette, who inherited from her mother, 
Maria Theresa of Austria, energy but not sound judgment. 
Louis began well by making Turgot controller-general of the 
finances. Turgot was in fact, though not in name, prime min- 
ister, for he insisted that none of the other ministers should 
spend any money not set down in the plan of expenditure. 
Another reason was his resolution to make the changes neces- 
sary for the welfare of the country. These concerned him, 
since they were changes which touched either the system of 
taxes or the management of the finances or trade and industry. 
As minister of finances his motto was, " jSo bankruptcy, no 
increase of taxation, no loans." This meant that in order to 
establish a balance between receipts and expenditures there 
must be severe economy, something disagreeable to Queen 
Marie Antoinette, who wished her court life to be brilliant, 
and who wished to gratify her friends with splendid favors. 
Much could be accomplished by economy, but it was necessary 
to compel the clergy and the nobles to pay their share of the 
taxes if the government was ever to extricate itself from its 
debts. 

318. Turgot's Reforms, 1774-1776. —Turgot would have at- 
tempted to distribute more equally the burdens of taxation 
had he not been driven from office within two years. He made 
a beginning by annulling the corvee, in accordance with which 
the great highways were built by the forced labor of the peas- 
ant farmers rather than by hired laborers paid from the pro- 
ceeds of taxes collected from all property owners. He also 
allowed the grain merchants to buy and sell freely throughout 
France. Many had believed that the only way to prevent 
famine was to forbid grain to be sent from province to province 
without government permission, and to insist that it must 
always be sold at public markets, sometimes at prices fixed by 



314 THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

the government. Turgot's greatest reform was the abolition 
of corporations of artisans, composed of masters and provided 
with long sets of rules, which controlled the manufacture and 
sale of articles in almost all French towns. These corporations 
tried to keep in their hands a monopoly of business, and they 
frequently prevented ordinary artisans from becoming masters. 
Turgot's plans were denounced as revolutionary not only by 
the members of the corporations, but also by the judges in the 
parlements, which Louis XVI. had been obliged to reestablish 
because many people thought them an indispensable safeguard 
against despotism, Turgot persuaded the king to compel the 
judges to register the decrees, but soon afterward Louis, weary 
of the outcry, dismissed him. Many of his reforms were 
immediately undone. 

319. France and the English Colonists. — Before Turgot was 
dismissed in 1776, the king's council discussed the question 
whether France should help the revolting colonies of England. 
Turgot argued against a new war, because this would throw 
the finances of France into greater disorder ; but Vergennes, the 
minister of foreign affairs, thought the occasion excellent for 
the recovery of the prestige France had lost in the Seven Years' 
War. The opinion of Vergennes was adopted, and an alliance 
would have been made immediately had not the defeat of the 
colonists on Long Island and the retreat through the Jerseys 
caused the French government to hesitate. Already money and 
arms had been secretly forwarded to the colonists. Lafayette 
and other young officers had crossed the sea to fight in the 
colonial armies. When the news of the capture of Burgoyne 
at Saratoga reached France in 1777, an alliance was arranged. 
French assistance was especially valuable, because the king's 
advisers had learned during the Seven Years' War the value 
of a strong fleet and had been at work ever since preparing 
one for such an emergency. As soon as the English learned 
that a squadron under Count d'Estaing was to sail for America, 
they withdrew from Philadelphia and returned to New York. 
In 1779 they were too busy defending their West India Islands 



ENGLAND FORCED TO YIELD 



315 



^to push the war against the colonists. In this year, also, the 

Spaniards entered the war, hoping to recapture Gibraltar. The 

French and Spanish fleets 

united in the Channel to 

cover an invasion of Eng- 
land. The invasion never 

took place, but the danger 

thoroughly alarmed the 

English. 
320. England Forced to 

Yield. — Other dangers 

threatened the English. 
Their attempts to seize 

French or American goods 
found in neutral ships and 
to capture neutral ships 
trading with French or 
American ports, which they 
had declared to be in a state 
of blockade, but which they 
had not actually blockaded, 
led to war with the Dutch 
and to a league of northern 
states in 1780 headed by 
Russia, called the Armed 
Neutrality. The Irish Prot- 
estants took this opportu- 
nity to compel England to 
allow the Irish parliament 
to make the laws for Ireland and to regulate its trade. Even in 
distant India the English were on the defensive, for the sultan 
of Mysore, Haider Ali, invaded the Karnatik. He was assisted 
by a French fleet under Suffren. The English were better 
prepared for war than in the days of Dupleix, for Warren 
Hastings, the new governor-general, had reorganized the 
administration of the Company's affairs and had success- 




COMTE DE KOCHAMBEAU. 

Born, 1725 ; died, 1807. Served in the War 
of the Austrian Succession and in the 
Seven Years' War. Made commander, 
in 1780, of the French army in America. 
This statue, presented hy the French 
nation, was erected in Washington, 1902. 



316 THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

fully extracted millions from the treasuries of dependent 
native princes. The most fatal blow at English power was 
struck by the Count de Grasse, when with a large fleet he beat 
off the English fleet at the capes of the Chesapeake while 
Washington and Rochambeau shut Cornwallis in at Yorktown. 
The independence of the American colonies was assured. 
After this England fought France and Spain only to obtain 
an honorable peace. The victory of Rodney over De Grasse 
in the West Indies in April, 1782, made this possible. The 
English were obliged to give Minorca and Florida to Spain, 
but retained Gibraltar. 

321. The Result to France. — France gained little save glory 
from the war. It had cost fifteen hundred million livres. 
Necker, a Swiss who had made a fortune in banking at Paris, 
had been pnt in charge of the government finances shortly after 
Turgot's dismissal. He did not dare to suggest new taxes and 
raised the needed money through loans. This merely post- 
poned the evil day. 

322. Frederick the Great, 1740-1786. — In Frederick the 
Great, Prussia possessed a ruler capable of laying the founda- 
tions of a new prosperity. He had shown this by his energetic 
efforts to repair the ravages of the Seven Years' War, which in 
some districts had been as dreadful as those of the Thirty 
Years' War a century before. The money and stores which 
he had gathered for another campaign he immediately used 
in these ruined districts. To the farmers of Silesia he gave 
seventeen thousand horses and a great quantity of grain. He 
also remitted the taxes for half a year and rebuilt eight thou- 
sand houses. He sought everywhere for colonists to fill the 
places of the peasants who had disappeared. If he learned 
that a ruler was persecuting his subjects, or that calamity had 
overwhelmed a community, he sent agents there to persuade 
the people to emigrate to Prussia. A part of their expenses 
he paid, as his father had done in similar cases. Before his 
reign was over, about three hundred thousand persons had 
been added in this way to the Prussian population. As he had 



FREDERICK THE GREAT 



317 



sought to increase the prosperity of Silesia after it became a 
Prussian province, so he worked for West Prussia when it was 
taken from Poland. On the royal domains he renewed his 
father's attempt to better the condition of the peasants. The 




Frederick the Great. 

Born at Berlin, January, 1712; died at the palace of Sans Souci, near 
Potsdam, August, 1786. This statue was erected in Berlin in 1851. 



most that he could do was to free their children from the 
obligation of becoming domestic servants in the houses of the 
lords. His efforts to plant new industries in various parts # of 
the kingdom were partially successful, though he injured trade 



318 THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

by acting on the ancient notion that every thaler spent in pur- 
chasing a foreign article was a thaler lost. In his schemes 
to keep the State out of debt he was no more honest than in 
his plans to rob his neighbors of territory. He repeatedly 
inflated the currency which he redeemed at a fifth of its nomi- 
nal value. It was in such currency that he paid the salaries 
of his officials. Their lot was a hard one in other ways, for he 
treated them simply as his agents, brow-beating them brutalty 
when they displeased him. Like his father he worked hard, 
giving his personal attention to everything. His petty tyran- 
nies were forgiven by the Prussian people, and after his death 
in 1786 he was remembered only as " our Fritz." They knew 
that he was wholly devoted to the welfare of the State. 

323. Joseph II., 1765-1790. — Maria Theresa had been Fred- 
erick's greatest rival; her son, Joseph II., became his imitator. 
Joseph believed that it had been through a strong, carefully 
centralized administration of his widely scattered provinces 
that Frederick had been so successful. He was more eager than 
Frederick to equalize the burdens of taxation and to destroy 
serfdom. When he ascended the throne at the death of his 
mother, in 1780, it was as if another Turgot had appeared, this 
time endowed with absolute power. Unfortunately he had not 
even as much self-restraint as Turgot, and he did not realize 
how stubborn would be the resistance of those whose privileges 
he struck down. He had been emperor fifteen years before he 
became king and he had found that it was impossible to put new 
life into an old confederation, where the princes were like 
independent sovereigns. He turned with all the greater en- 
thusiasm to the task of reforming the dominions of the House 
of Hapsburg. Some of his reforms were inevitable sooner or 
later, but in attempting them he showed too little considera- 
tion for rights which nobles or clergy had long possessed. 
Such were the abolition of serfdom and the assessment of 
property so that all should be taxed equally. His attempt to 
unite different races, like the Hungarians, the Bohemians, the 
Austrians, and the Netherlander, under a single administra- 



ENGLISH INVENTORS 319 

tive system was futile, because he was attacking privileges 
which were not merely a cherished heritage, but also a fixed 
habit of life among these different peoples. He went so far 
as to make German the only language officially recognized 
throughout all his states. The most dangerous discontent was 
roused in the Netherlands. There each region had its charter, 
which all rulers from the time of the Burgundian dukes had 
confirmed. Joseph's attempt to organize the Netherlands as 
a single province provoked a rebellion in 1789, which was put 
down only by Joseph's successor. He had already attempted 
to exchange the Netherlands for Bavaria, but neither Fred- 
erick the Great nor France was willing to see a purely 
German territory added to the Hapsburg domains. After 
1787 he was drawn by his ally, Catherine II,, into a profitless 
war with Turkey, the failures of which saddened his last days. 

324. Other Enlightened Despots. — Many other countries 
had " benevolent despots " and enlightened ministers who 
attempted to substitute a well-organized State for groups of 
communities with special charters, and for clergy and lords 
with special privileges. Such work was undertaken in 
Bavaria, Sardinia, the grand duchy of Tuscany, in Portugal, 
and even in Spain. Unfortunately the reforms never went 
very deep, for the rulers were more anxious to destroy 
obstacles to their own power than to lighten the burden which 
weighed down the peasants and the artisans. 

325. English Inventors. — England had no " benevolent 
despot." Taxation was fairer than on the Continent. There 
were no serfs to free. It is true that the land was generally 
owned by the lords, and that parliament in making laws 
thought more of the interests of the nobles and the merchants 
than of the people as a whole. But the inventors were pre- 
paring an industrial revolution which would correct some of 
these wrongs, although it might create others and bring much 
temporary suffering. Manufacturing was still carried on 
according to the domestic system. Thread was spun on the 
spinning-wheel by women or children, while men wove the 



320 THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

cloth on hand-looms. These men might also own or lease a 
little land and be farmers as well as weavers. Their holdings 
of land were often in half-acre strips, scattered over the village 
fields, as had been the custom in the Middle Ages. This way 
of living was attacked on two sides : first by the inventors of 
machinery for spinning and weaving, second by the rapid 
enclosure or redistribution of strips into consolidated farms. 
Hargreaves devised his spinning-jenny in 1764. A little later 
Ark wright made a machine with rollers, while Crompton com- 
bined the two into the " mule " spinner. Up to this time more 
thread could be used in weaving than was readily spun on the 
wheels. Now spinning went on faster than weaving. After 
1784 Cartwright restored the balance by constructing a power- 
loom. About the same time Watt was constructing steam- 
engines which could furnish the power. Ordinary spinners 
and weavers did not have money enough to buy these ma- 
chines, so that the new enterprise passed into the hands of 
capitalists. Factories were built and there the machines were 
placed. 

326. Cost of Industrial Revolution. — Since factories could 
produce cloth cheaper than the hand-loom weavers, both 
spinners and weavers were compelled to give up their work 
and either become mill hands or take other employment. 
Those who held land might try to remain in the country as 
farmers, but this was yearly becoming more difficult because 
new methods of farming were introduced which also required 
large outlays of money. Moreover, from the middle of the 
century the plan of enclosing the common fields was pushed 
forward rapidly. Under the old system the farmer might 
have rights of pasturage on the common fields. When these 
were enclosed he would receive a little more land or a sum of 
money as compensation, but it would be more difficult to gain 
a livelihood, and he would be tempted to sell his land and try 
his fortune in a neighboring town or in America. Many vil- 
lagers held no land except the plot about their cottages. 
They had been wont, however, to pasture their cows or allow 



FRENCH PEASANTS 321 

their geese to wander in the common fields. If this right did 
not appear in the records, it vanished with enclosure. This is 
the meaning of the rhyme : — 

" The law locks up the man or woman 
Who steals the goose from off the common ; 
But leaves the greater villain loose 
Who steals the common from the goose." 

The new methods of agriculture and of manufacturing 
undoubtedly increased the wealth of the country : they may 
not have equally increased the worth of the men. 

327. French Peasants. — In France from one to two fifths 
of the land were held by the peasants. Although there were 
only one or two hundred thousand serfs, and these in the 
northeast on the borders of Germany, the land of the peasants 
was still burdened with many feudal dues. Besides the cens, 
a sort of quit-rent, he was generally obliged to pay the lord of 
the manor a part of his crop. His grain must be ground at 
the lord's mill, his bread baked at the lord's bake-oven, and his 
grapes pressed at the lord's wine-press. In the Middle Ages 
the lord had done a favor to the community by providing it 
with such conveniences. This service had at length become 
a monopoly. The lord could also collect tolls upon the neigh- 
borhood roads, just as the king collected them on the high- 
ways. He could keep pigeons, which fed on the peasants' 
grain. He could hunt game over the peasants' fields. As the 
peasant himself could neither keep pigeons nor hunt, such 
privileges seemed hateful. These charges or burdens could 
not be regarded as rent, for the peasant was an owner rather 
than a tenant. In many cases the land which he owned had 
been free from them before the feudal system had given the 
lords an opportunity to establish by force rights over their 
weaker neighbors. In other cases they really represented an 
original rent charge. So many generations had passed since 
the origin of such rights that the peasants were beginning to 
look upon them as mere exactions. Many peasants lived upon 



322 THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

land owned by the Church or by the lords, which they culti- 
vated on shares, according to what is called the metayer system. 
They were generally much worse off than the peasant owners, 
because they saw no reason to improve land that belonged to 
others and contented themselves with a meagre subsistence. 

328. Taxation in France. — The greatest burden upon the 
peasants was the taxes. In collecting the taille a certain sum 
was assigned to a village and the money must be paid whether 
the peasants could afford it or not. Assessors when they chose 
fixed the sums each should pay. It did not take the peasants 
long to learn that if they appeared prosperous and if they made 
improvements upon their farms, the sum charged against them 
would be increased. Consequently they often seemed more 
wretched than they were. Neither the nobles nor the clergy 
paid the taille. Thousands of officials enjoyed the same privi- 
lege. The nobles paid the " twentieths," but they had the right 
to state the amount upon which they should be taxed, while 
the peasants paid according to the amount of the taille. It was 
the same way with the poll tax. One writer has calculated 
that these direct taxes took from the peasant over fifty per 
cent, of the income originally set down as liable to taille. In 
addition, the peasant must pay the tithe to the clergy, his feudal 
dues, the customs, and the taxes on salt. It is hard to see what 
he had to live on unless he had succeeded in concealing a part 
of his property at the outset. The clergy had for a lump sum 
purchased exemption from the poll tax and the " twentieths." 
They made what was called a " free gift," which was too small, 
considering that the Church held at least a fifth of all the land. 
Although the people seemed heavily taxed, the government did 
not receive a sufficient income. The principal reason was the 
small amounts demanded from so many wealthy persons. An- 
other was the expensive method of collecting the taxes. Noth- 
ing but a thorough overhauling of the whole financial system 
could save France from disaster. 

329. A Crisis in France. — Since Turgot's dismissal no seri- 
ous attempt was made to better the situation until 1787. Over 



SUMMARY 323 

ten years had been lost, for the ministers could only take up 
plans which the ill-will of Marie Antoinette and the courtiers 
had compelled him to lay aside. Calonne, the controller-general, 
proposed a stamp tax and a land tax, which would enable the 
government to abolish the " twentieths " and to reduce the tattle 
and the salt tax. The stamp tax would rest chiefly upon the 
rich, whose business required the use of officially stamped paper. 
It was the land tax which would be particularly obnoxious to 
the clergy and nobility, because it was the tattle under another 
name, and they regarded their freedom from such taxes as an 
honor due their rank in society. In order to give weight to 
these reforms Calonne persuaded the king to summon an As- 
sembly of Notables, chiefly clergy, nobles, and royal officers, 
which was expected to hear and approve the plans. The Nota- 
bles were more anxious to protect their privileges than to re- 
lieve the government from its difficulties. Their resistance 
caused Calonne's overthrow. His successor finally got rid of 
them, but found a more serious obstacle in the parlement of 
Paris, which registered the decrees only by express command 
of the king and immediately afterward voted that its act was 
not a real registration. The quarrel dragged on until in 1788 
Louis XVI. vainly repeated his grandfather's attempt to sup- 
press the parlements and to organize a new system of courts. 
There was no resource left except to call once more the states 
general and ask it to discover a way to save the country from 
bankruptcy. 

SUMMARY 

I. France, Futile Efforts for Reform.— 1. Turgot's attempts: 
(a) character of Louis XVI.; (ft) Turgot's problem; (c) his 
reform decrees ; (d) reason for his dismissal, effect of this upon 
his reforms. 2. Effect of alliance with America upon French 
finances. 
II. Beginning of the Revolutionary Era. — 1. Why France was ready- 
to assist the revolted colonists of England. 2. Results of French 
intervention. 3. Difficulties of England : (a) armed neutrality 
of 1780 ; (ft) troubles in Ireland ; (c) attacks in India ; (d) suc- 
cessful expedition of Count de Grasse. 4. Terms of peace. 



324 THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 

III. Benevolent Despots. — 1. Frederick the Great: (a) efforts to 

repair war damages ; (b) assists immigration ; (c) improves posi- 
tion of peasants ; (d) his abuses of power. 2. Joseph II. : (a) his 
aims ; (6) difficulties of the situation ; (c) consequences of his 
efforts. 3. Reforms in other lands. 

IV. Life of the People, ix England and France. — 1. England: 

(a) condition of country people ; (b) the domestic system ; 
(c) industrial inventions ; growth of factory system ; (d) effect of 
this upon villagers ; (e) effect of system of enclosing. 2. France : 
(a) burdens resting on peasantry ; (6) their origin ; (c) unequal 
distribution of taxes ; (d) the crisis of 1787, 1788. 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1774. Louis XVI. becomes king of France. 

1778. Alliance of France with American colonists, 

1783. Independence of United States acknowledged. 



FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : national histories already mentioned ; Hassall ; Low- 
ell's Eve of the French Revolution. 

Paragraphs: 

317. The Heritage of Louis XVI.: Camb. Mod. Hist,, VIII., 79-82. 

318. Turgot : Lowell, 235-238; Lecky, Fr. Rev., 111-114; Morley, 

Miscellanies, II., 41-162; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., 83-88. 

319. France in the American Revolution: Trevelyan, American 

Revolution; Tuckerman, Lafayette; Mahan, 346 ff. 

320. Final Struggle on the Sea : Mahan, Ch. 13. 

322. Frederick the Great : especially Henderson, II., Ch. 5. 

323. Joseph II. : Hassall, 351-358 ; Bright, Joseph II, Chs. 3, 6 ; Whit- 

man, Austria. 
325, 326. Industrial Revolution: Cheyney, 203-223 ; Toynbee; Gib- 
bins. 

327. French Peasants: Taine, 329-348 (on Taine, see Morley, Mis- 

cellanies, III., 261-290) ; Lowell, Ch. 13 ; Tocqueville, 151-169; 
in the notes (333 ff.) ; Tocqueville gives a descriptive list of feudal 
dues; Arthur Young, Travels in France. 

328. Taxation: Taine, 349-373, especially, 362-368; Lowell, Ch. 14. 

329. Crisis in France : especially Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., 99-115. 



SUMMARY 325 

Additional Reading: Taine's Ancient Regime; Tocqueville's Old Re- 
gime and the Revolution ; Lecky, French Revolution (ed. 
Bourne); Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., Chs. 2-4; Toynbee, Indus- 
trial Revolution ; Gibbins's Industry in England. 

Review: Chs. 16-20 ; period, 1600-1788 : downfall of Stuarts in England ; 
opening of new struggle between France and England ; division 
of Spanish heritage ; struggle for control of Poland ; attempt to 
despoil the Hapsburgs ; a revolution in the colonies. 

Special Reviews : — 

I. Geographical Changes. — 1. Completion of French frontiers, by 
{a) acquisition of Franche Conite", and (b) of Lorraine. 2. Divi- 
sion of Spanish heritage : (a) Spain and the colonies ; (b) Nether- 
lands ; (c) Naples ; (d) Milan ; (e) change in disposition of 
Sicily and Sardinia. 3. Prussia : (a) acquisitions in western 
Germany ; (6) independent of Poland ; (c) conquest of Silesia ; 
(d) partition of Poland. 4. Austria ; (a) gains in Hungary ; 
(6) gains part of Poland. 5. Russia's conquests from Sweden. 
6. Colonial gains and losses of England, France, and Holland. 
II. New or Reorganized Monarchies. — 1. Great Britain : (a) change 
of dynasty; (b) union with Scotland ; (c) parliamentary 
supremacy ; (d) organization of cabinet government ; (e) disas- 
trous political quarrel with colonies. 2. France : (a) growth of 
absolute monarchy: (b) trouble about taxation. 3. Austria, 
permanent control of Hungary. 4. Prussia : (a) the Great Elec- 
tor ; (&) work of Frederick William I. ; (c) Frederick the Great. 
5. Beginnings of kingdom of Sardinia. 6. Russia reorganized by 
Peter the Great. 
III. New Hundred Years' War between France and England. — 
1. Prelude : (a) dependence of Charles II. upon Louis XIV. ; 
(6) common antagonism against th* Dutch ; (c) danger from 
ambitions of Louis ; (d) Louis after 1670 as champion of a 
Catholic restoration ; (e) Revolution of 1688. 2. England enters 
league against Louis : (a) due to leadership of William III. ; 
(6) effect upon relations of Canada and English colonies. 
3. English cooperate in thwarting attempt of Louis to settle the 
Spanish question. 4. Echoes of War of Austrian Succession in 
India and America (King George's War). 5. Fight for the col- 
onies ; (a) schemes of Dupleix ; (b) causes of conflict in America ; 
(c) Seven Years' or French and Indian War ; (d) the French 
take their revenge in 1778 ; (e) results of the conflict up to 1783. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 

330. Preparations for the States General in France. — 
Louis XVI. had found that neither his Notables nor his judges 
would aid him in planning a new and better system of taxes, 
and he had reluctantly decided to call the states general. 
While preparations were being made in the fall and winter of 
1788-1789 for the elections, — no small task, since this body had 
not met for one hundred and seventy-four years, — it was neces- 
sary to find money to pay the difference between the king's 
income and his expenses. Necker, the great banker, was again 
asked to take charge of the finances. As the other bankers 
trusted Necker, he had no trouble in borrowing enough to keep 
the king from becoming bankrupt. He also persuaded the 
king to promise that henceforth the states general should meet 
regularly and should have the right to consent to plans of taxa- 
tion. The nobles and the clergy were to pay taxes like the 
common people. Furthermore the third estate was promised 
as many representatives in the states general as the nobles and 
clergy were to have together. All Frenchmen began to think 
that the golden age had come again. They were filled with 
gratitude toward Louis as the restorer of liberty. 

331. Plans of Reform. — Each group of voters, even the 
country parishes, was asked to draw up a cahier, or list of 
wants, so that the king and the states general might know what 
burdens must be removed. These cahiers show that the people 
chiefly desired a constitution in which their rights and the 
duties of the royal officers should be carefully set forth. They 
also asked that everybody, noble or peasant, be equal before 
the judge and the tax-gatherer. Only a few expressed the wish 
to take from the clergy or the nobles the honors which had for 

326 



OPENING OF THE STATES GENERAL 327 

centuries belonged to them. In addition to the cahier, many 
pamphlets and books were printed explaining what ought to be 
done. The most famous pamphlet was written b}' a priest 
named Sieyes. Its opening words were : " What is the third 
estate ? Everything. What has it been thus far in political 
affairs ? Nothing. What does it demand ? To become some- 
thing." This and other writings argued so boldly for the 
rights of the people and suggested so many changes in the 
manner of governing France that some of the nobles, bishops, 
and judges became alarmed. The queen also dreaded the 
states general. Influenced by those who had most to lose, the 
king began to fear he had promised too much. 

332. Opening of the States General. — The states general 
assembled in Versailles, May 5/1789. Many of the third 
estate were surprised that the king and his ministers said 
little about the promised changes in the constitution and much 
about his authority, about taxes, and paying the debt. They 
began to fear lest he should favor the nobles and the clergy in 
their struggle against changes which would deprive them of 
their special privileges and honors. This made the commons 
the more anxious to know whether all the deputies were to 
vote in one great assembly, since it would be of little use to 
have as many deputies as the nobles and clergy put together if 
there were to be three assemblies, each with a single vote in 
any final decision. There was a long wrangle between the 
three estates about this, and June 17, after several of the more 
liberal clergy and nobles had joined them, the commons 
declared their assembly to be the " National assembly " and in- 
vited the other two estates to join it if they would have a part 
in lawmaking. The king, more and more under the influence 
of the queen and the frightened courtiers, forbade such a settle- 
ment of the question. He was soon forced to yield, for the 
third estate stubbornly persisted in its decision, and many of 
the clergy and nobles gave up the attempt to hold separate 
assemblies. As the National assembly was to draw up a con- 
stitution, it was also called the Constituent assembly. 



328 



FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 



333. The Revolt of Paris. — Some of the king's advisers now 
persuaded him that if he did not support his authority by 
force, disobedience and riot would soon make government 
impossible. The increasing disorders in Paris were used as an 
excuse for gathering an army about both Paris and Versailles. 




The Bastille. 

Section of an engraved map, of 1734, showing the Bastille, the rue Saint 
Antoine leading toward the Hotel de Ville, and, outside the Saint Antoine 
gate, the faubourg where many of the Revolutionary mobs were recruited. 
The attack on the Bastille was made from the courtyards at the right. 

After the soldiers had arrived, the court party threw off the 
mask, and on July 11 Necker was dismissed and ordered to 
leave the country with all haste, and a new ministry, hateful 
to the National assembly, was formed. At the news of 
Necker's dismissal the streets of Paris were filled with excited 
people, some declaring there was to be a new Saint Bartholo- 
mew, others that the army was to attack the city. Taking 



THE REVOLT OF PARIS 



329 




advantage of the confusion, thousands of vagabonds began to 
run through the streets seeking for plunder. As the royal 
officers did not dare to act, the electors — a convention elected 
to choose the Paris deputies to the states general — assembled 
at the Hotel de Ville and 
organized a city government. 
They also began to form a 
city militia. On the morn- 
ing of July 14, a great crowd 
broke into the Hotel des In- 
valides and seized thirty thou- 
sand guns. A similar crowd 
attempted to procure arms at 
the Bastille. The commander 
of the Bastille was unable to 
persuade them to withdraw, 
and foolishly fired upon them. 
The mob thereupon laid siege 
to the fortress. After the 
electors had failed to stop the 
fighting, a part of the old city 
guard joined the besiegers. 
Although the Bastille was in 
no danger from successful 
attack, the commander sur- 
rendered. He and several of 

the garrison were savagely murdered in the streets by the 
mob. The triumph of the Parisians compelled the king once 
more to undo what he had done. He withdrew the troops, 
recalled Necker, and came to Paris, where he approved of the 
organization of a city government, with the astronomer Bailly 
as mayor and with Lafayette as commander of the city militia 
soon to be named the National Guard. 

334. The Attack on Feudalism. — Since Paris had success- 
fully defied the king, many other towns took affairs into their 
own hands. In some provinces the orders of the government 



The Marquis de Lafayette. 

Born in Auvergne, France, 1757 ; died 
at Paris, 1834. Became a major-gen- 
eral in the American Revolutionary 
army in 1777. Commander of the 
Paris National Guard in 1789. When 
he fled from France after August 
10, 1792, he was imprisoned hy the 
Prussians and Austrians until 1797. 



330 FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 

were disobeyed and the taxes could not be collected. Neckei 
was at his wits' end to find money enough to pay the daily 
expenses. In many places the peasants attacked the chateaux 
and burned the papers or books in which were recorded the 
payments which ever since the days of feudalism had been 
made to the nobles by the holders of land. In an outburst of 
enthusiasm the National assembly tried to restore order by 
removing the burdens which had made the people revengeful. 
In the session of August 4 it voted to abolish all sorts of privi- 
leges, — the rights of the nobles over the peasants, all special 
claims to office, all advantages possessed by one class over 
another, and by a town or a province over its neighbors. All 
Frenchmen were to be equal before the law, with the same 
rights and the same burdens. It was also decided that the 
owners of certain rights — offices which they or their ancestors 
had purchased, or dues from lands which they had leased — 
were to receive money to make good their losses. Those whose 
rights had grown out of the possession of serfs could expect 
nothing. As many of these rights had been bought and sold 
for hundreds of years, it was not fair to take them from their 
present owners without payment. In order to carry out these 
decrees it was necessary to get the king's consent and to make 
laws about details, for a society like France could not be re- 
organized by a few decrees. 

335. Reforms. — The assembly next drew up a Declaration 
of Rights, intended to secure to all the people just and equal 
treatment. The Americans had set the example in the Dec- 
laration of Independence and in the " bills of rights " prefixed 
to the state constitutions. This French declaration affirmed 
that " men are born and remain free and equal in rights." It 
also promised every one the freedom to think, to utter, and to 
print what he believed. No one was to be arrested except for 
offences defined by law, and when arrested he was to be con- 
sidered innocent until he was proved to be guilty. In spirit 
this declaration was similar to the decrees of August 4. The 
assembly succeeded in putting only a portion of these promises 



THE KING BROUGHT TO PARIS 331 

into the form of laws. It established the system of trial by 
jury, and abolished cruel methods of putting criminals to death, 
substituting execution by the guillotine. It attempted to de- 
stroy some of the greater inequalities between men by abolish- 
ing titles of nobility and forbidding the use of coats of arms 
and liveries. The guilds which still retained some control 
over different trades were dissolved, and every man was free' 
to pursue the trade he should choose. Commerce was helped 
by the abolition of the tariffs collected upon goods passing 
from province to province. Such taxes were henceforth to be 
collected only at the frontiers. 

336. The King Brought to Paris, October 6.— Before the 
assembly began these useful reforms, it got into a violent con- 
troversy over the question whether the legislature should have 
two houses, like the English and the American legislatures, or 
only one, and whether the king should be allowed to veto bills. 
Paris was excited by the controversy, because the king had 
not yet accepted the decrees of August 4. Finally the assem- 
bly voted to have a single house, but gave the king the right 
of veto. The excitement was beginning to subside when the 
Parisians learned that a regiment had been ordered to Ver- 
sailles. They suspected a new court conspiracy. They were 
also suffering for lack of bread. Thousands were out of em- 
ployment. In their distress they easily listened to demagogues 
who told them that the king's advisers were to blame for all 
the trouble, and that if he were brought to Paris, where he 
could be kept away from the influence of selfish courtiers, there 
would be plenty once more. On October 5 a mob, composed at 
first chiefly of women, tramped out to Versailles, followed by 
the Paris National Guard, who had compelled Lafayette to 
lead them. In his alarm the king yielded to the clamor of the 
rioters and came with the queen and the dauphin to reside in 
the Tuileries. Henceforward he was really a prisoner. 

337. The Emigrants. — This incident so alarmed moder- 
ate men that several prominent members of the assembly re- 
signed, and Mirabeau, its ablest leader, began secretly to advise 



332 



FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 










the king how to restore 
his authority. Already 
many nobles had left the 
country, — the count of 
Artois, who was the 
king's brother, and several 
princes going immediately 
after the fall of the Bas- 
tille. Other nobles had 
been frightened away by 
the burning of chateaux. 
These were called emigres, 
or emigrants. As they 
continued to receive their 
income from their estates 
and to spend it in foreign 
lands, many French work- 
men and shopkeepers, who 
had previously depended 
on them, were made poor. 
Some of the emigres also 
tried to induce the Em- 
peror Joseph and the king 
of Prussia to put down the 
Revolution. 

Note. — Section of a map of 
1734. The Tuileries were con- 
nected with the older Louvre by 
a long gallery. In front was the 
Place du Carrousel from which 
the principal attack was made 
August 10, 1792. Behind lay the 
Tuileries Gardens, opening on 
the Place Louis XV., renamed the 
Place de la Revolution and now 
called the Place de la Concorde. 
The Tuileries. It was on this square that some 

of the first fighting took place, 
July 12, 1789. Here, also, many were guillotined in 1793 and 1794. The Con- 
stituent assembly held its sessions in the Manege (at the left of the picture) 
from November, 1789. 




LOCAL GOVERNMENT 



333 



338. Newspapers and Clubs. — If the assembly hesitated to 
go on with its great changes, it was hurried forward by the 
newspapers and the clubs. A few of the newspapers tried to 
keep things as they were, but those which cried out for change 
had the most influence. Many politicians edited newspapers, 
which were like pamphlets, containing a description of what 
had been said in the assembly or 
in the clubs, with little news and 
no advertisements. The most fa- 
mous of these papers was the Mon- 
iteur. Another, V Ami du Peiqrte, 
or Friend of the People, was pub- 
lished by Marat, and was all the 
while calling on the people to rise 
against the king or the assembly 
or the Paris government. The 
principal political club met at the 
convent of the Jacobins and was 
nicknamed the Jacobin Club. 
Three years later it was controlled 
by violent revolutionists. The 
best known of these men was 
Robespierre, already a member of 
the club, but as yet without much 
influence, for the club also con- 
tained leaders like Mirabeau and 
Lafayette. As the Jacobin Club had branches all over Prance, 
it did a good deal to make Frenchmen think alike, and the 
things it wanted the assembly to do generally had to be done. 
There was also the Cordelier Club, named from the monastery 
where its sessions were held. Danton was its most prominent 
member. 

339. Local Government. — One of the greatest changes made 
by the assembly was the division of France into eighty-three 
departments, replacing the older division into provinces and 
generalities. Each department was named for some natural 




Comte de Mirabeau. 

Born, 1749; died, April, 
1791. Already famous for 
his adventures and his writ- 
ings when the Revolution 
began. The ablest statesman 
of the Constituent assembly. 



334 FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 

feature, generally a river or mountain range. The boundary 
lines of the old provinces were retained as far as possible, for 
the people preferred to call themselves Bretons, or Picards, 
or Burgundians, rather than inhabitants of the Finistere, the 
Somme, and the Cote d'Or. The departmental governments 
were expected to manage their local affairs and to act as agents 
of the central government in carrying out the laws and in col- 
lecting the taxes. A similar form of local self-government was 
granted to the colonies. As there was no sure way of compel- 
ling officers to enforce laws which they did not approve, it often 
happened that departments became almost independent of the 
central government. This has been called " administrative 
anarchy." It was as if Congress should intrust to the states 
the enforcement of United States laws and the collection of 
taxes. In the same way each town or commune, whether large 
or small, had its own government, and often acted indepen- 
dently of the department, or of the central government. This 
was especially true of Paris, for the Parisians thought their 
opinions should be followed because they had done so much for 
the Revolution at the beginning. 

340. Church Property. — By another change, in some ways 
more important, the Church, formerly a half independent body, 
became a company of officials paid by the State to perform the 
religious duties assigned to them. One of the reasons for this 
was the desire to use the vast property of the Church in paying 
the national debt and in meeting the daily expenses of the gov- 
ernment. It was feared that if the people were compelled to 
pay in taxes the heavy cost of all the reforms which were pro- 
posed, the Revolution would become unpopular and its enemies 
would triumph. Accordingly Church property was declared 
national property in November, 1789. The cathedrals, parish 
churches, and a few monastery churches were to be maintained 
as parish churches and all the other lands and buildings were 
to be sold. 

341. Paper Money. — It was difficult to devise a way to 
sell so much property at once without selling at a heavy 



PAPER MONEY 



335 



loss. Furthermore, buyers were afraid that if the enemies 
of the ^Revolution got the upper hand, a new assembly would 
be chosen which would declare the sale of Church property 
wrong and would compel its return. To relieve them of this 
fear it was decided to sell the land to the towns, which were 
to pay the government in notes. The towns would be able to 
give a safer title to would-be purchasers. But there was an- 



>■■ ■ -' " ■ --- - . 

B0MAIM1S NAT.IONA.tfX 

Hypoihiqucs au remljourfeinenc des AJ[:pa(s dccret&^par PAffem.Wce Rationale ,«■•' 
Lei i) if 11 Dhtmbrt >7 s }> y .t^E^^^inl •7i" , fanO'ioanis j,ar'i&f.aut 



ASSIGNAT DE 





\i 



An Assignat. 

This note promises to pay 1000 livres ($200) at the office of the Ex- 
traordinary Fund, with interest at 20 deniers a day, the security being 
the National Domaius, pledged to the reimbursement of such notes. 

other difficulty ; money was scarce, possibly it would take a 
long time to sell enough land to enable the towns to redeem 
their notes and so help the government to pay its expenses. 
Since the government could not wait, the assembly voted in 
April, 1790, to issue notes of its own, called assignats, or assign- 
ments upon the proceeds of the land sales, and bearing interest 
at three per cent. The leaders declared that this was not 
paper money, that it was safer than notes redeemable in gold, 
for gold might be stolen, but land could not be stolen. They 



336 FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 

promised to issue assignats, to the value of only four hundred 
million livres, while the laud was worth many times that 
amount. It was not six months before they decided to issue 
eight hundred million more, and they and their successors in 
the Legislative assembly and the Convention voted other issues 
until the assignat was as worthless as Continental money dur- 
ing the American Revolution. Meanwhile much land was 
sold. It used to be thought that this passed into the hands of 
the peasants and helped to build up a body of small farmers, 
but it has been shown that quite as often the land was bought 
by rich men in town or country. 

342. Reorganization of the Church. — After taking the Church 
property the assembly undertook to change thoroughly the 
organization of the Church. In what was called the " Civil 
Constitution of the Clergy," adopted in July, 1790, all the dio- 
ceses were made to correspond with the departments, cutting 
down the number of bishops and archbishops from one hundred 
and thirty-four to eighty-three. All these prelates as well as the 
priests were to be elected as if they were ordinary civil officers. 
They could not look to the pope for his consent to their ap- 
pointment, as had been agreed by Francis I. in his concordat 
with Pope Leo X. The monasteries had already been closed. 
To many pious Frenchmen, as well as to the king, all this seemed 
wrong. They thought that any change in the organization of 
the Church should be made by a Church council. It was certain 
that the pope would not agree to the " Civil Constitution of the 
Clergy." Indeed, Louis signed it only because he was told that 
if he did not, there would be an insurrection. As nearly all 
the bishops declared openly against it, the assembly, in Novem- 
ber, drew up an oath of submission which the clergy were to 
take or be deprived of their positions. All except four bishops 
refused the oath. About forty-six thousand priests also refused 
it. The assembly ordered elections to fill the places made va- 
cant. After much trouble new bishops and priests were chosen. 
They were called the " constitutional " clergy or, by their 
enemies, the "intruders," while the others were named "non- 



THE KING AND THE NEW CONSTITUTION 



337 



jurors." In some parishes the intruders did not dare appear 
unless they were protected by soldiers. In other places it was 
the non-jurors who were roughly used. Thus France was di- 
vided into two bodies which feared and hated one another. 
Although the king had signed the law, he did not dare to 
receive the sacrament from a constitutional priest. He also 
thought that the assembly had gone too far and began to plot 
how he might upset much that had been done. 

343. The King and the New Constitution. — The king had 
grown weary of his captivity. He could not take a walk even 
in the Tuileries gardens 
without being attended by 
guardsmen. With the aid 
of one of his generals he 
gathered an army near the 
northern frontier. He 
thought that if he could 
reach this army, he could 
appeal to its loyalty for 
support against the revolu- 
tionary politicians who had 
taken away his power. If 
the army also failed him, 
he could ride across the 
frontier into the dominions 
of his brother-in-law, the 
Emperor Leopold. In 
June, 1791, he escaped 
from Paris, and drove as 
far as Varennes, almost 
within the lines of the 

army, but was stopped and brought back. The assembly did 
not at once restore him to authority. Enthusiastic revolution- 
ists began to talk of dethroning him. Some of them even 
suggested a republic. July 17, a multitude gathered in the 
Champ de Mars, a great field where a year before on the first 



L; *. 




KiW ♦II WP 









Louis XVI. 

Born at Versailles, 1754; exe- 
cuted at Paris, January 21, 1793. 



338 FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 

anniversary of the fall of the Bastille a festival of Federation 
had been held. Here a petition for the king's dethronement 
was displayed. The Paris municipal officers, thinking that 
another insurrection was being prepared, ordered the National 
Guard to disperse the mob. In the confusion the guards fired 
into the crowd and many persons were hurt in the stampede 
which followed. This " Massacre of the Champ de Mars " 
stirred up hatred among the more violent men against the well- 
to-do Parisians, who were anxious for good order and were 
willing to compromise with the king. The assembly concluded 
that it had gone too far and attempted to make the constitu- 
tion more satisfactory to Louis. When the completed consti- 
tution was presented to him in September, he accepted it, 
because he hoped in this way to gain time until he could 
persuade the emperor to interfere in his behalf. 

344. The Legislative Assembly. — October 1, 1791, the new 
legislature, called the Legislative assembly, took the place of 
the National or Constituent assembly. The Constituent had 
unwisely voted that none of its members could accept an elec- 
tion, and so a set of untried men were to manage the government. 
Most of those who were chosen were more enthusiastic for the 
Revolution than even the members of the Constituent. It was 
improbable that they would please the king or make his situa- 
tion more agreeable than he had thought it in the spring. 
Indeed, in November they attacked the two classes of persons 
whom he regarded as his stanchest, though not always his wis- 
est, friends, — _the emigres and the non-jurors. In one decree 
they declared the emigres who should remain assembled on 
the frontiers to be conspirators, and in another they provided 
for a stricter surveillance over non-juring priests. To these 
measures he refused his consent. After this there could be no 
peace between the assembly and the king. 



SUMMARY 339 



SUMMARY 

I. Hopes of Betterment. — 1. King's promises : («) periodical meet- 

ings of states general ; (b) increased influence for third estate ; 
(c) equality of taxes. 2. Popular plans: (a) cahiers ; (b) a 
constitution ; (c) equality before the law ; (d) greater political 
power. 

II. Why Reform became Revolution. — 1. Conflict between nobles 

and third estate : (a) question of voting ; (6) reasons why king 
took sides with nobles ; (c) success of third estate ; (d) court 
party attempts to use army; (e) revolt of Paris; (/) war on 
the chateaux ; (g) king and queen forced to reside in Paris. 

III. What Reforms the Revolution made Possible. — 1. Program 
of August 4 : (a) abolition of feudal privileges; (b) difficulties 
about carrying this out ; (c) equality of taxation ; (d) eligibility 
to office. 2. Declaration of Rights: (a) freedoms, — thought, 
speech, press ; (6) safeguards of justice. 3. Abolition of guild 
system. 4. Freer trade. 5. Local government : (a) division 
into departments ; (b) provision for local self-government. 
6. Reorganization of Church : (a) Church property made national 
property ; (b) assignats as a method of sale ; (c) attempt to re- 
organize the Church by Civil Constitution of Clergy. 

IV. Resistance of Old Order. — 1. Emigration. 2. Non-juring clergy. 
3. Flight of king: («) object; (6) effect upon public opinion; 
(c) attempt to bring about his deposition ; (d) nature of king's 
acceptance of constitution ; (e) his veto used to protect non- 
jurors and Emigre's. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1789, May 5. Meeting of states general. 

1789, June 17. States general becomes National assembly. 

1789, July 14. Fall of Bastille. 

1789, August 4. Declaration abolishing the feudal system. 

1789, October 6. King and queen forced to reside in Paris. 

1791, June. Flight to Varennes. 

1791, October. Meeting of Legislative assembly. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : Histories of France ; brief histories of the Revolu- 
tion, by Matthews, Morris, or Gardiner ; Stephens, European 
History, 1789-1815; Fyffe, History of Modem Europe; Rose, 



340 FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION 

Century of European History and Revolutionary and Napoleonic 
Era; Anderson, Constitutions and Documents; University of 
Pennsylvania, Tr. and Rp. 

Paragraphs : 

330. Necker's First Measures : Cambridge Modern History, VIII. , 

115-118. 

331. Cahiers : specimens in Tr. and Rp., Vol. VI., No. 5; selection 

from pamphlet by Sieyes, Ibid., Vol. VI., No. 1, p. 32. 

332. Opening of States General : vivid impressions in Young's 

Travels in France, 151 ff. ; Jefferson's letters. 

333. Paris Uprising: Stephens, French Revolution, I., Ch. 5; new 

city government, Bourne, Am. Hist. Rev., January, 1905. 

334. Decrees of August 4: Anderson, No. 4; Tr. and Rp., Vol. I., 

No. 5, pp. 2-6; Taine, I., 149-154; but especially Viollet in 
Camb. Mod. Hist, VIII., 715-721. 

335. Declaration of Rights : Anderson, 58-60 ; Tr. and Rp., Ibid., 6-8 ; 

compare with the first eleven amendments of the Constitution 
of the United States and with the "bills of rights" prefixed to 
the constitutions of Massachusetts and Virginia. See further, 
Bourne, American Constitutional Precedents in the Constituent 
Assembly, Am. Hist. Review, April, 1903. 

336. October 5-6 : Pasquier I., 60-61 ; Morris, I., Ch. 8 ; situation in 

January, 1790, Arthur Young, 287-310. 
338. Newspapers: specimens in Tr. and Rp., Ibid. ; Jacobin Club, 
Ibid., 19. 

340. Church Property: Taine, I., 167-175; Jervis, 30-42. 

341. Paper Money : Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., 695-696. 

342. Civil Constitution of Clergy : Anderson, No. 6, C ; Tr. and Rp., 

Ibid., 20-26 ; for earlier relations of Church to French State, see 
paragraphs 169, 195, 279; Jervis, Ch. 3 ; Taine, I., 176-186. 

343. King's Plight : his justification, Anderson, Nos. 12, 16. 

344. The New Constitution: Montague in Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., 

201-210. 

Additional Reading : works of Stephens, Von Hoist, Taine, Thiers, 
and Carlyle ; Camb. Mod. Hist. , VIII. ; Memoirs of Pasquier, 
Talleyrand, Mallet du Pan ; Dumont, Recollections of Mirabeau; 
Diary and Letters of G. Morris, 2 vols. ; Mahan's Sea Poiver 
and the French Revolution and Empire, 2 vols. ; MacLehose, 
From Monarchy to Republic in France ; Jervis, Galilean Church 
and the Revolution ; Willert, Mirabeau; Despatches of Lord 
dower. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 

345. Impression made by the Revolution. — The startling 
events in France were eagerly watched in other countries. 
Americans were interested because they had been revolutionists 
and were now actually organizing a new government, provided 
for in a constitution drawn up by a convention or constituent 
assembly. Lafayette, one of the Paris heroes, had fought for 
American independence and was Washington's intimate friend. 
Jefferson, the secretary of state, had been the American min- 
ister to France when the French Revolution broke out and had 
discussed their plans with the leaders of the National assembly. 
In England and in Germany there were many men, particularly 
poets like Burns, Wordsworth, and Klopstock, who thought a 
more glorious age was coming when men, freed from heavy 
burdens, would be happier and better. But, a little later, 
Edmund Burke, who had spoken in behalf of the rights of 
the American colonists, became convinced that the French 
were fatally wrong. His book entitled Reflections on the Revo- 
lution in France, published in 1790, declared that there could 
be no worse way to cure the ills of a nation. He also said that 
the privileges and dues which had been changed or abolished 
by the new laws were as sacred as ordinary private property. 

346. Policy of European Monarchs. — The Revolution did 
not at first alarm the sovereigns of Europe. They even dis- 
covered an advantage in it, because it crippled a kingdom 
which had long sought to dominate its neighbors. Further- 
more, nearly all were deeply engaged in war, — the Austrians 
and the Russians against the Turks, and the Swedes against 

341 



342 THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 

the Russians. The Austrians were also harassed by a revolu- 
tion which had broken out in the Netherlands. But when 
Louis XVI. was forcibly brought back from Varennes, the 
Emperor Leopold, brother of Queen Marie Antoinette, decided 
it was time for other monarchs to restore royal authority in 
France. England, under the guidance of William Pitt, refused 
to interfere. The Tsarina Catherine of Russia hoped that both 
the emperor and Frederick William of Prussia would become 
involved in a quarrel with France, in order that she might be 
free to carry out her designs upon Poland. Leopold understood 
this and was relieved when the acceptance by Louis of the new 
constitution gave him an excuse to abandon his plan of inter- 
ference. Unfortunately, grievances which might bring on war 
still remained. Bands of emigres were gathered on the fron- 
tier, trying to arrange an invasion of France. The German 
princes who had estates in Alsace and Lorraine had lost their 
feudal rights by the decrees of August 4, 1789, and refused to 
accept money from France in payment. 

347. Declaration of War. — Many in the Legislative as- 
sembly thought that the only way to keep Louis XVI. from 
intriguing with other monarchs against the Revolution was to 
make war upon the Emperor Leopold, on the ground that he had 
threatened to interfere in French affairs and that he had not 
dispersed the armed emigres. If the kings united against the 
revolutionists, they would appeal to the peoples of Europe. 
In such a war the kings would have little chance, for were not 
armies drawn from the people, and would they fight against 
their brethren ? It was hinted that the king of Prussia might 
consider this a fine opportunity to cripple the Hapsburg enemy 
of the Hohenzollerns. In the midst of the discussion the pru- 
dent Leopold died and was succeeded by his son Francis. 
Louis was forced, April 20, 1792, to declare war upon him, not 
as emperor of Germany but as king of Hungary and Bohemia, 
for the assembly did not wish to fight Germany as well as 
Austria. Prussia would not listen to the French proposals 
and joined the Austrians. This was the beginning of a series 



SEPTEMBER MASSACRES 343 

of wars which were to shake ancient Europe to its foundations, 
and which, before they were ended in 1815, were to involve 
even the United States and to lead to the insurrection of the 
Spanish American colonies. 

348. Overthrow of Louis XVI., August 10, 1792.— Fiance 
was unprepared for war. Thousands of officers, disgusted by the 
Revolution or frightened by their mutinous soldiers, had joined 
the emigres. The assignats, or paper money, had begun to fall 
rapidly in value. The king and queen, believing that their 
only hope of safety lay in the success of the enemies of France, 
revealed to them the plans of the generals. At midsummer, 
just before the Prussians and the Austrians crossed the frontier, 
they published a manifesto declaring that all Frenchmen must 
at once return to the obedience of their king, that any town 
which resisted the invaders would be ravaged with fire and 
sword, and that Paris should be similarly treated if the king 
and queen were insulted or harmed. After such a mad proc- 
lamation it was difficult for any patriotic Frenchman not to 
look upon the king as in league with the enemy. This gave 
violent men their opportunity. They overthrew the Paris 
government, establishing a new Revolutionary commune, and 
on the following day, August 10, led the populace, with many 
national guardsmen from Paris or other cities, against the 
Tuileries. The king took refuge in the assembly, while his 
brave Swiss guards fought until they were ordered to cease 
firing. The palace was captured and sacked. The assembly 
suspended the king's authority and sent him to the Temple 
as a prisoner. Those who were still loyal to him were 
forced to submit or emigrate. Lafayette hoped to lead the 
army, which he had commanded since the opening of the war, 
to Paris, to put down the insurrectionary government, but his 
troops would not follow him, and he was obliged to cross the 
frontier as a refugee. 

349. September Massacres. — The triumph of the mob placed 
the control of affairs in the hands of men like Danton and 
Robespierre, who were determined to treat the king's friends 



344 



THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 



as traitors. Hundreds of officials, nobles, and non-juring 
bishops and priests were crowded into the Paris prisons or 
into monasteries used as prisons. When one frontier fortress 
after another fell before the advancing Prussians, the populace 




The Temple. 

The Great Tower of the Temple, constructed by the Templars 
in 1222, confiscated by Philip IV. after 1307, demolished in 
1811. Here the royal family were imprisoned. Marie An- 
toinette was later taken to another prison, the Conciergerie. 

began to clamor for the lives of the prisoners. Bloodthirsty 
fanatics, like Marat, urged the people on. The assembly and 
the city officials were either indifferent or powerless. On 
Sunday, September 2, bands of desperadoes broke into the 



THE CONVENTION 



345 



prisons and killed the prisoners. For several days a systematic 
massacre went on. When quiet was restored, it was found 
that at least a thousand persons had been slain. 




The Carmelite Monastery. 

Here over one hundred and fifty persons, chiefly priests, including 
two bishops and an archbishop, were murdered, September 2, 
1792. Many of them were thrust out of the doorway at the left 
and killed with swords or pikes at the foot of the stairway. 

350. The Convention. — The insurrection of August 10 had 
destroyed the monarchy. France was actually a republic, 
although this fact had not been legally proclaimed. It was 



346 THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 

necessary to call a convention which should form a republican 
constitution. When it met, September 20, this Convention was 
forced to give nearly all its attention to the ordinary business 
of government, leaving the question of a new constitution to be 
settled several months later. The ministers dared undertake 
nothing without the consent of the Convention. Its special 
task was rendered difficult by the quarrels between leading 
politicians, — the Girondins, named from the department which 
several of them represented, and the Mountain party, so called 
because its members occupied the high seats at the left of the 
hall. The Girondins were friends of Madame Roland, wife 
of the minister of the interior. They detested Danton and 
Robespierre, whom they held responsible for the massacres of 
September. During the period of the Legislative assembly 
they had belonged to the Jacobin Club, but now its members 
were their bitter enemies. 

351. Defeat of the Allies. — The day the Convention met, 
the Prussian army was checked at Valmy. It was not a 
hard-fought battle, but it was a great victory for the French. 
The Prussians were already disgusted with the invasion. The 
emigres had promised that they would find friends everywhere, 
but they discovered that the peasants were hostile and that the 
towns resisted stubbornly. What especially influenced the 
Prussian king was the conduct of Catherine, whose army had 
invaded Poland several months before. He felt that his troops 
should be on his eastern frontier rather than hundreds of miles 
away in France. His decision to retreat was not the only 
advantage gained by France. Other French armies overran 
the Rhine country, Savoy, and Nice. Dumouriez, the victor 
at Valmy, also defeated the Austrians in the Netherlands. 
Success so blinded the eyes of the Convention that it ordered 
the armies to march to the rescue of any people which wished 
to overthrow its tyrants, as France had done. 

352. The New Crusade. — The leaders of the Convention 
soon discovered that the Netherlanders and the Germans did 
not wish the sort of liberty which French politicians, follow- 



THE NEW CRUSADE 



347 



ing in the wake of the victorious armies, were attempting 
to force upon them, — heavy war contributions, persecution of 
priests and nobles, and payments in assignats. This reluctance 
the Convention attributed to the local aristocracy, and in De- 
cember, 1792, ordered that the officials should be deposed and 
their places given to partisans of France, selected chiefly 
among the poorer classes, or sans culottes, who had everything 
to gain by revolution. When such a crusade for democracy 



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Execution of Louis XVI. 

According to a contemporary print. On the pedestal at the left 
was a statue of Louis XV. from which the square was named. 

was proclaimed, Europe took alarm. Alarm turned to horror 
with the news that the Convention had tried Louis XVI. as if 
he were a common traitor, had declared him guilty, and had 
caused him to be executed January 21, 1793. There was soon 
no large state in Europe, except Turkey, which was not at war 
with the terrible republic. England had a special grievance, 
— the advance of the French armies toward the frontiers of 
Holland, her ally. The tide of victory turned. Dumouriez, 
the hero of Valmy, disgusted by the conduct of the French 
agents and defeated by the Austrians, attempted to lead his 



348 THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 

army against the Convention. He failed, and early in April 
crossed the frontier with his staff, including Louis Philippe, 
a future king of France. 

353. Poland. — France had attempted to carry revolution 
among her neighbors. They retorted by planning to rob her 
of territory. She could read her fate in the way Russia and 
Prussia were despoiling Poland. In 1791 Poland had adopted 
a new constitution providing for a monarchy strong enough to 
keep order at home and to defend the land against its enemies. 
The Tsarina Catherine wanted Poland to be weak, so that she 
might control the government or annex Polish provinces. The 
Russians overthrew the constitution, but in 1793 were obliged 
to share the spoil with Prussia. Prussia received the cities of 
Dantzig and Thorn, with Posen and Gnesen, and Russia a large 
part'of Lithuania. 

354. France in Alarm. — France took warning. To frighten 
conspirators the Convention, in March, 1793, established the 
Revolutionary Tribunal, a special court from which there could 
be no appeal. In order that these conspirators might be dis- 
covered, revolutionary committees were formed in every com- 
mune, and in the sections of the large cities. An executive 
committee, called the Committee of Public Safety, was chosen 
in April from the Convention, to control the ministers and see 
that whatever was necessary should be done quickly. In order 
to pay the heavy expenses, more and more assignats were issued. 
As these fell in value the government attempted to keep prices 
from rising by forcing bakers and other shopkeepers to sell 
below a fixed maximum price. Thus from the dangers into 
which the quarrels and the recklessness of the French leaders 
had plunged their country had grown a government every whit 
as arbitrary as the old government of the Bourbons and more 
tyrannical. 

355. Civil War. — The dangers which threatened France 
did not check the wrangling of the Girondins and the Jacobins. 
The Girondins realized that Paris, managed by its most violent 
citizens, threatened the liberties of France, but their protests 



REIGN OF TERROR 



349 



hastened their own ruin. A new insurrection compelled the 
Convention, on June 2, to order their arrest. Several of them 
escaped from Paris, and made a vain attempt to arm the de- 
partments against the Jacobin city. A revolt in the western 
department of La Vendee, originally caused by the effort of the 
government to raise troops, spread into neighboring depart- 
ments, supported by the monarchists and by those who wished 
their old priests restored. The 
armies of France were driven back 
from the frontier. The peril be- 
came so great that patriotic French- 
men, even those who detested the 
Jacobins, dared not encourage re- 
sistance, lest a divided country 
might the sooner fall a prey to the 
foreigner. 

356. Reign of Terror. — In July, 
1793, the government passed from 
the control of Danton and his 
friends into that of still more vio- 
lent men, of whom Robespierre 
was the most influential. These 
men saw no way to save the coun- 
try and maintain their own power 
except by frightening their personal 
and political enemies into abject 
submission. Little by little they 
brought on a Reign of Terror every- 
where. It had long before been decided that any emigre or 
non-juring priest who returned to France should be put to 
death. Now, every one who had opposed the men in power, 
or who had been a noble, or was related to an emigre was 
declared to be a suspicious person, liable to immediate arrest. 
Arrest did not always mean death, but few of those once 
brought to trial before the Revolutionary tribunal were freed. 
In the fall and winter there was a constant series of executions 




Danton. 

Born, 1750, at Arcis-sur-Aube ; 
executed at Paris, April 5, 
1794. Minister of justice after 
August 10, 1792; member of 
the Convention ; leading mem- 
ber of the first committee of 
public safety, April-July, 1793. 



350 THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 



in Paris, — the Girondins, the queen, Madame Roland, Bailly, 
who was the first mayor of Paris, and many other distinguished 
persons. The rebellious cities of Bordeaux, Lyons, and Toulon 
were punished by butcheries of hundreds of citizens. Even such 
bloody deeds did not satisfy some fanatics. A group of them 

began to attack the Constitu- 
tional priests. They abolished 
the old calendar, substituting 
a new set of months named from 
the seasons, and a new era, 
beginning September 22, 1792. 
They endeavored to set up the 
worship of Liberty and Reason 
in place of the Catholic religion. 
The cathedral of Notre Dame 
was declared to be a Temple of 
Reason. Now that their politi- 
cal enemies had been crushed, 
the Jacobins quarrelled among 
themselves. Dan ton and his 
friends, who had tried to check 
the Terror, were sent to the 
scaffold in April, 1794. Robes- 
pierre was left apparently su- 
preme, but only for a short time. 
So long as he lived his personal 
friends alone felt safe. He fell 
in a last attempt to destroy his 
rivals on the 9th Thermidor, — 
so the 27th of July, 1794, was named in the new calendar. 
During the last forty-nine, days 1376 persons had been exe- 
cuted in Paris alone. The country was weary of such slaugh- 
ter. The danger which had been its only excuse was over. 
French armies had again become victorious. They had freed 
the frontiers, and were once more invading the Netherlands, 
the Rhine country, and Savoy. 




Robespierre. 

Born at Arras, 1758; executed at 
Paris, July 28, 1794. Member of 
the Constituent assembly and of 
the Convention ; leading member 
of the second committee of pub- 
lic safety, July, 1793-July, 1794. 



END OF THE CONVENTION 351 

357. France and America. — The outbreak of war between 
England and France had placed the Americans in a dilemma. 
During the Revolutionary War, when they had made an alli- 
ance with France, both countries had agreed to protect each 
other's territory on the western shores of the Atlantic. It was 
probable that the English would attack the French West 
Indies, and Washington was obliged to decide whether the 
agreement was still binding after Louis XVL, with whom the 
treaty was made, had been executed. Washington concluded 
that the United States should remain neutral, but it was diffi- 
cult to maintain a fair neutrality, because the people eagerly 
took sides, some for England, but most for France. England 
had not yet surrendered the western forts, as had been prom- 
ised at the peace of 1783, and now she undertook for a time 
to keep American ships from trading with the French West 
Indies. The anger against England would have been greater 
had not the French minister, Genet, used American ports to fit 
out privateers to attack English ships, and had he not insulted 
Washington when orders were issued to stop this violation of 
neutrality. 

358. England. — The influential men of England were so 
alarmed by the success of the Jacobins, by the persecution 
of the Church, the wealthy, and the nobles, and by the rapid 
advance of the French armies, that they set their faces against 
change of any sort, even against a fairer representation of the 
people in parliament, or a repeal of the laws which burdened 
the Catholics and the dissenter's, or the abolition of slavery 
and the slave trade. Supported by them, Pitt, who once had 
been the advocate of peace and reform, suspended the Habeas 
Corpus Act which protected men from arbitrary imprisonment, 
and, like the Jacobins in France, caused the adoption of laws 
which took away the liberty of speech, compelling every one 
to submit or be silent. 

359. End of the Convention. — Although during the Reign 
of Terror the Convention had shared the cruel hatreds of its 
most violent members, it had done much that was useful. It 



352 THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 

had organized a system of public schools, including the Poly- 
technic and the Normal School at Paris, and had adopted the 
metric system of weights and measures. It had abolished 
slavery in the French colonies. The law of inheritance which 
compelled parents to divide their property equally among their 
children was of more doubtful value, because it split up many 
farms into portions so small as to render farming much less 
profitable. After the fall of Robespierre the churches were 
reopened, but the Convention repudiated the promise to pay 
the salaries of the clergy. This meant a separation of Church 
and State, but since many of the revolutionists regarded the 
Church as the enemy of the republic, there was little religious 
liberty. The chief work of the later sessions of the Conven- 
tion was the new constitution. This provided for a Directory 
of five men who were to govern the country, while the laws 
were to be made by two houses or councils, one of five hundred 
and another of two hundred and fifty. The Convention feared 
that its political enemies might control the new assemblies, 
and it ordered that at least two-thirds of their members should 
be chosen from its own membership. This brought on a new 
revolt in Paris in October, 1795, led chiefly by the royalists. 
One of the principal officers who suppressed the insurrection 
was Napoleon Bonaparte, a young Corsican, soon to become 
conqueror of Italy and master of France. 

360. Triumph of France. — It was strange that all the 
European monarchies were not strong enough to conquer 
France. They might have succeeded had not each sought ad- 
vantages distasteful to the others. The partition of Poland had 
angered the Austrians, and they determined not to miss their 
portion if there was another division. Had the Prussians 
been content with more Polish territory and allowed the Aus- 
trians to annex France north of the river Somme to the Neth- 
erlands these two monarchies could have worked together, but 
Prussia wanted Alsace and Lorraine. England, the paymaster 
of the allies, wished little on the Continent, but contented her- 
self with seizing French colonies and building up her own 



SUMMARY 353 

trade. As she interfered with neutral trade, the Europeans 
thought her policy selfish. An insurrection of the Poles, led by 
Kosciuszko, who had been an officer in the American Revolu- 
tionary army, caused the Prussians, in 1794, to withdraw their 
troops from the Rhine. The Poles were conquered and a final 
division of Poland was made, in 1795, between Russia, Prussia, 
and Austria. In the same year Prussia decided to make peace 
with France, on the understanding that Prussian losses of ter- 
ritory on the west bank of the Rhine should be balanced by 
the annexation of territory in western Germany. Holland 
was forced to make an alliance with France. Spain made 
peace in 1795 also, and only Austria, England, and Russia 
were left to fight the French. By their agreement with Prus- 
sia the French had made the Rhine their northern frontier, 
reaching what they called their "natural" limits. Whether 
they could compel the Austrians to make a similar agreement 
remained to be seen. Meantime the new territory was organ- 
ized as departments and the people were brought under French 
law, which was, on the whole, a great advantage to them, for it 
put an end to their feudal burdens and made them all equal. 



SUMMARY 

I. Revolution and Europe. — 1. Early impressions : (a) in America ; 
(b) in England ; (c) among rival monarchs. 2. Policy of other 
states: (a) causes for alarm ; (6) work of the emigres ; (c) atti- 
tude of Austria. 3. War : (a) as a means of coercing the king ; 
(b) hopes of Prussian support ; (c) far-reaching consequences of 
war. 
11. Eirst Consequences of War. — 1. Overthrow of monarchy: 
(«) distress of the people ; (b) king's position compromised by 
manifesto ; (c) insurrection of August 10 ; (d) causes of the 
September massacres. 2. The republic against Europe : («) the 
new government ; (b) Prussian retreat ; (c) French offers 
of liberty ; (d) decision to force revolution upon conquered 
territory ; (e) execution of king as a challenge to Europe, with 
(/) general war ; (g) echoes in distant Poland. 



354 THE REVOLUTION AT WAR WITH EUROPE 

III. Reign of Terror. — 1. Causes : (a) treason ; (6) distress ; (c) party- 

strife and civil war ; (d) disasters in the field. 2. Methods : 
(a) arrest of suspicious persons ; (b) executions ; (c) punish- 
ment of rebellious towns ; (d) attack on Catholic religion. 

3. "The republic consumes her children" : («) Danton ; (5) fall 
of Robespierre ; (c) end of the Terror. 

IV. Beginnings of Peace. — 1. Loss of friendship for France : (a) in 

America ; (6) in England. 2. Order restored in France ; (a) at- 
tempt to regulate relations with Church ; (5) organization of 
a new government. 3. Prussia withdraws from the struggle. 

4. Peace with Spain. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1792, April. France declares war upon Austria (supported by Prussia). 
1792, August 10. Louis XVI. overthrown. 

1792, September 21. France declared a republic. 

1793, January 21. Louis XVI. executed. 

1793, June 2. Overthrow of Girondins. 

1794, July 27. Overthrow of Robespierre ; end of Reign of Terror. 

1795, End of Convention. Peace with Prussia and Spain. Third Par- 

tition of Poland. 

FURTHER STUDY 
General Reading : see Ch. 21. 
Paragraphs : 

345. Impression of the Revolution : Hazen, American Opinion of 

the French Revolution ; Dowden, French Revolution and English 
Literature ; Morley's Burke, Ch. 8 ; Colby, No. 104. 

346. Policy of European Monarchs : Lecky, French Revolution, 299- 

305, 314-356 ; Rose, Revolutionary Era, 59-61. 

347. Declaration of War : Anderson, No. 19 ; see also Arthur Young, 

356-358 ; motives of the French, Stephens, II., Ch. 2. 

348. Manifesto of Brunswick: Anderson, No. 23; Mallet, 145 ff.; 

overthrow of the king, Gardiner, 114-118. 

349. September Massacres : Stephens, II., 139-150; Taine's view, 

II., 198 ff. 

350. The Convention: Gardiner, 124-129. 

351. Valmy Campaign : Fyffe, 28-38. 

352. French Foreign Policy: Gardiner, 130-135; Lecky, 441 ff.; An- 

derson, No. 28, A and B. 



SUMMARY 355 

Paragraphs : 

353. Poland: Cambridge Modern History, VIII., Ch. 17. 

354. Tribunals and Committees : Gardiner, 142-148 ; Anderson, Nos. 

32-85. 

355. Civil War: Stephens, II., Ch. 8. 

356. Law of Suspects : Anderson, No. 41 ; Claretie's Camille and 

Lucile Desmoulins, biographies of Dan ton by Beesly and Belloc, 
of Robespierre by Lewes and Belloc ; Morley's essay on Robes- 
pierre, Miscellanies, I., 1-133. 

357. France and America : Channing, Student's History of United 

States, 296-303 ; the American neutral, Mahan, II., 199 ff. 

358. Reaction in England : May, Constitutional History of England, 

II., 297 ff.; Dovvden, Ch. 5. 

359. End of the Convention : Fyffe, 68-69; Rose, Napoleon, I., Ch. 4. 

360. Peace of Basel : Anderson, No. 48 ; explanation, Rose, 91-92, or 

Fyffe, 64-65 ; final partition of Poland ; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., 
Ch. 17. 

Additional Reading : B. Mallet, Mallet du Pan. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE RISE OF NAPOLEON 

361. The War Spirit in France. — Long before the peace 
of 1795 had broken the circle of hostile states surrounding 
republican France, the French soldiers had ceased to fight 
merely in the defence of their country. As victory carried 
them far from their frontiers, they forgot in the fierce joys of 
conquest and pillage that they had set out as messengers of 
liberty and equality and of the brotherhood of man. Their 
officers saw in continued war the road to fortune. Influential 
politicians were determined that the Rhine and the Alps should 
become the frontiers of France. Austria, supported by some 
of the German princes, was the only dangerous enemy of the 
French on the Continent. England could not be directly 
attacked, for she was becoming more than ever mistress of the 
seas. There were two ways of attacking Austria, through 
southern Germany or in northern Italy. The French armies 
in Germany had little success, but in Italy they were trium- 
phant under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

362. A New Leader. — Napoleon Bonaparte was twenty- 
seven years old in 1796, when he won his first victories. He 
was a Corsican, born after this island had been annexed to 
France. He was educated in the royal military schools. 
During the Revolution he learned to talk like a Jacobin, and 
Robespierre's younger brother had befriended him. He dis- 
tinguished himself at the capture of rebellious Toulon, and in 
the repulse of the royalists who wished to overthrow the Con- 
vention. These successes won for him the command of the 
army of Italy ; they also won for him the hand of one of the 

356 



BONAPABTE'S POLICY 357 

most influential women of Paris, Josephine de Beauharnais, 
whose husband had died on the scaffold during the Terror. 

363. Italy in 1796. — Italy was still divided into several 
states, of which the most important were the kingdom of 
Sardinia, including Piedmont ; the duchy of Milan, held by 
the Austrians ; the republic of Venice, occupying about half 
of Italy north of the Po ; farther south, the States of the 
Church and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This beautiful 
land had not been desolated by the Revolutionary war. Its 
prosperous wealth tempted the French soldiers, who were 
poorly fed and clothed by their bankrupt government. To 
them Bonaparte said, " Soldiers, I am to lead you into the 
most fertile plains in the world. There you will find honor, 
glory, and riches." Although his army was small, the wonder- 
ful young leader, by the rapidity of his marches, by always 
bringing more men than the enemy for the capture of each 
important position, speedily compelled the Sardinians to make 
a separate peace, drove the Austrians out of Milan, and forced 
each new army that sallied from the valleys of the Tyrol 
either to retreat or surrender. It was a hard struggle and was 
not ended until the spring of 1797, when Bonaparte advanced 
through the Alps toward Vienna and forced the Austrians to 
a truce. 

364. Bonaparte's Policy. — Although General Bonaparte 
had allowed his officers and soldiers to plunder the country 
pitilessly, and although he had compelled the cities to send 
great sums of money and many works of art to Paris, the 
Italian blood that ran in his veins prompted him to encourage 
the Italian patriots who longed for a union of all the states of 
the peninsula. Out of the Austrian possessions, with some 
Venetian territory, and a part of the States of the Church, he 
created a republic, called, after the Roman manner, the 
Cisalpine Republic. But at the Peace of Campo Formio, in 
October, 1797, he did not hesitate to sacrifice the remainder 
of Venice to Austria, in return for the cession to France of the 
Netherlands. Austria was also to assist France in obtaining 



358 THE BISE OF NAPOLEON 

from the imperial diet the abandonment of the lands west of 
the Rhine which had been conquered by the French armies. 

365. War against England. — It was now the turn of the 
" giant corsair of the seas," as one of the French directors 
called England. In 1795 Spain and Holland became allies of 
France, and their ships, with the French fleet, outnumbered 
the English fleet. For a time England seemed in danger, but 
before the Peace of Campo Formio two English victories at 
Cape St. Vincent and at Camperdown had crippled the Spanish 
and the Dutch navies. It was at the battle of Cape St. 
Vincent in February, 1797, that Nelson first distinguished 
himself. His genius in directing the sea power of England 
rivalled Bonaparte's genius as a commander of armies. Since 
England could no longer be attacked directly, the French 
government despatched Bonaparte upon an expedition to 
Egypt with the vague hope that, if it were conquered, aid 
might be sent to the enemies of England in India, especially 
to the Sultan Tipii of Mysore. Immediately after the French 
landed in Egypt, in August, 1798, Nelson found and destroyed 
their fleet at Aboukir Bay. Bonaparte gained victories over the 
Mameluke warriors and the Turkish armies, but he was none 
the less a prisoner, for he had no means of taking his army 
back to France. When news came that France was in danger 
from a new European coalition, he left his army under the 
command of Kleber, in August, 1799, and, eluding the English 
ships, returned to France. Not long after Nelson's victory, 
the English in India attacked Tipii, killed him, and shared 
his possessions with friendly Indian princes. During the last 
three years the English had captured nearly all the French 
and Dutch colonies. Of the Dutch colonies, South Africa and 
Ceylon eventually became parts of the British empire. 

366. Distress in England. — Although England's sea power 
saved her from a direct invasion by France, the war brought 
great distress upon the people. It was only the contractors 
and the capitalists who prospered. Even they were alarmed 
when the Bank of England was obliged to refuse to pay gold 



FRENCH POLITICS 359 

on demand for its notes. The most serious danger grew out 
of the uprising of thousands of Irishmen tortured by the 
oppression and tyranny of their landlords and of the govern- 
ment. This rebellion was put down, and, in order that Ireland 
might be more easily controlled, the Act of Union was passed 
in 1800, taking from her the right to have a separate parlia- 
ment. 

367. Bankruptcy in France. — The distress of the English 
was as nothing compared with that of the French. The Con- 
vention and the Directory had continued to print assignats 
until the issues amounted to forty-five thousand millions. 
These notes had become worth less than one per cent, of their 
face value. A shoulder of veal cost six hundred and fifty 
francs, or one hundred and thirty dollars, and a bottle of 
ordinary wine, thirty francs. In 1797 the government 
declared that this paper was no longer legal tender and 
refused to receive it in payment either of taxes or of the 
public lands. The steady fall in value of the assignats had 
been especially bad for persons who had invested all their 
savings in government bonds and had been obliged to receive 
interest in assignats. For them worse followed. In Septem- 
ber, 1797, the government divided the public debt into two 
parts, of which only one, called the " consolidated third," was 
treated as a regular indebtedness, while two-thirds were imme- 
diately paid in notes which were worth about one-twentieth of 
their face value. 

368. French Politics. — France had other troubles. The 
dethronement of Louis XVI. did not make good republicans of 
all the citizens. The cruelties which were done in the name of 
the republic convinced some who had been at first eager revo- 
lutionists that the only hope for France was in a restoration of 
the monarchy with Louis's brother as king. As the secret 
enemies of the republic began to gain power, all who had 
profited by the changes, who had seen their feudal burdens 
disappear, or who had purchased the confiscated property of 
the Church and of the emigres, became alarmed. Party con-. 



360 THE BISE OF NAPOLEON 

flicts were passionate, because men were struggling not about 
ordinary matters, such as taxation or the possession of offices, 
but about property, religion, and the form of government itself. 
Under the circumstances only a wise constitution, honestly 
carried out, could save the country from violent quarrels. The 
monarchists, or those who were suspected of being mon- 
archists, got control of the council of Five Hundred, while the 
majority of the directors were uncompromising revolutionists. 
To retain their power the directors used the army, arrested over 
sixty councillors and sent them to Guiana, which was omin- 
ously named the " dry guillotine." This affair occurred on the 
18th Fructidor (September 4, 1797), a month before the Peace 
of Campo Formio. Two years later the legislature retaliated, 
and two of the directors were forced to resign. As the politi- 
cians did not hesitate to call upon the army to settle their 
quarrels, the way was opened for some daring soldier to make 
himself master of the republic. 

369. Overthrow of the Directory. — Bonaparte, upon his 
return to Paris, in October, 1799, found a movement on foot 
to change the constitution. Its leader was the Abbe Sieyes, 
author of the famous pamphlet, " What is the Third Estate ? " 
Sieyes wished to decrease the power of the legislature and 
to increase that of the executive officers. To bring about 
the change he needed the assistance of a popular general 
who could control the army. Bonaparte readily entered into 
the plot. The risk was not serious, because the majority of 
the directors and of the council of Elders, or the Two Hun- 
dred and Fifty, favored the plan. Bonaparte was made com- 
mander of the troops in the military district which included 
Paris. In order that the supporters of the existing constitu- 
tion, who controlled the majority of the council of Five Hun- 
dred, might be unable to call the Parisian mob to their aid, 
the two assemblies were convened in St. Cloud, a suburb sev- 
eral miles away. So violent was the opposition in this council 
that Bonaparte was greeted with cries of " treason " when he 
attempted to enter the hall. Soldiers were summoned to drive 



THE CONSULATE 



361 



out the councillors. Shortly afterward a few of the council 
of Five Hundred united with the council of Elders in ap- 
pointing a commission to draw up a new constitution and in 
choosing three consuls to manage the government. This 
affair was called the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). At 
the time many strong republicans, and among them Lafayette, 
thought that the republic had been saved from ruin at the 
hands of noisy demagogues. 

370. The Consulate. — Bonaparte had been chosen one of the 
consuls. The new constitution was arranged to suit him rather 
than Sieyes, who had made 
the original plan. Instead of 
a Directory of five there were 
to be three consuls, of whom 
the first was to have nearly 
all the power, for he could 
appoint the ambassadors, the 
officers of the army and navy, 
the judges, and the government 
officials who were to manage 
local affairs. The laws were 
to be drawn up in a council 
of state appointed by him, and 
after they had been discussed 
by a tribunate and voted by a 
legislative assembly were to 
be examined by a senate, whose 
selection he controlled, to see 
if they complied with the principles of the constitution. Al- 
though ordinarily the consuls were to be chosen by the senate, 
this time they were appointed in the constitution itself, and 
Bonaparte was to be first consul. Immediately after the con- 
stitution went into effect, Bonaparte increased his own power 
by forcing the passage of a law that the local government of 
France should be intrusted in each department to prefects 
appointed by the first consul. The mayors of the towns were 




Napoleon Bonaparte. 

Born in Corsica, 1769; died at St. 
Helena, 1821. Commissioned lieu- 
tenant in the French army in 1785. 



362 THE RISE OF NAPOLEON 

also to be appointed either by him or by the prefects whom he 
controlled. 

371. The Concordat. — General Bonaparte already had more 
power than the old Bourbon kings, except over the Church. 
The refusal of the Convention to support the Church had left 
the constitutional priests in the same situation as those non- 
jurors who had dared to remain in the country or to return 
after the fall of Robespierre. They both belonged to private 
bodies not recognized by the State. Bonaparte was anxious to 
win the favor of pious churchmen by healing this schism and 
by restoring the Church to its former influence and splendor. 
At the same time he resolved not to abandon any parts of the 
civil constitution of the clergy which he thought were ad- 
vantageous to France. He offered to the pope the right to 
institute the bishops, whom the first consul was to appoint. 
The fear that Bonaparte might favor the constitutional priests 
and ruin their more orthodox rivals, or might overturn the 
papal government at Rome led the pope to consent to such an 
arrangement, which was proclaimed in 1802. It was named a 
concordat, like the treaty between Francis I. and Leo X. 

372. The Code. — Bonaparte had started a still more impor- 
tant work. This was the preparation in the council of state 
•of a new code of laws. Before the Revolution the laws were 
different in different parts of the country. Many of these 
differences had been swept away by the Constituent assembly 
and the Convention, but the long-promised code was constantly 
deferred. When it was completed it benefited France as 
much as Justinian's code did the later Romans, for it defined 
in clear language all the civil rights and duties of the people. 
It benefited other countries also. Wherever during the com- 
ing years French arms or French influence was extended, the 
new legal definitions and arrangements were received. 

373. Peace. — While Bonaparte was in Egypt, a new war had 
broken out with Austria, this time actively supported by 
Russia. French armies were at first everywhere driven back, 
but finally they again became victorious, so that France was 



REORGANIZATION IN GERMANY 363 

in little danger of invasion. To Bonaparte was left the glory 
of bringing the war to a close by the victory of Marengo in 
Italy, in June, 1800, followed as this was by General Moreau's 
equally brilliant victory at Hohenlinclen in Bavaria in Decem- 
ber. Austria was forced to sign the Peace of Luneville early 
in 1801. A year later came the Peace of Amiens with the 
English, who found themselves without allies, burdened by a 
rapidly growing debt, and troubled by the suffering among the 
common people. 

374. Reorganization in Germany. — Never had France played 
a greater part. Her influence was dominant in Italy, in Hol- 
land, and in Switzerland. Under her direction Germany was 
being reorganized. The treaties of Basel and Campo Formio 
had suggested that the states which had lost territory by the 
extension of the French frontier to the Rhine should be repaid 
by annexing territories to the east and north of the river. The 
Peace of Luneville made it necessary to carry out this agree- 
ment at once. It was plain that the new lands would be found 
by taking away from the priest-princes, — archbishops, bishops, 
and abbots, — and from the Free cities, their rights as sovereigns, 
and by annexing their territories to the states which lay near- 
est them. France controlled the distribution of these lands, 
and the princes who were eager for gain or who feared loss 
hurried to Paris to make as good terms as possible. The result 
was the disappearance from the map of those Church states 
which since the days of Charlemagne and Otto had been char- 
acteristic of western and southern Germany. The process, com- 
pleted in 1803, was called " secularization," and it was similar 
to what had taken place in northern Germany at the time of the 
Reformation, except that the bishops and abbots retained their 
property and their powers as Church rulers. At the same time 
many Free cities were absorbed. This was an important step 
toward the consolidation of Germany. France unconsciously was 
strengthening a rival state which would one day humiliate her. 

375. Colonies. — Bonaparte took advantage of peace with 
England to restore to France a great colonial empire. A year 



364 THE RISE OF NAPOLEON 

or two before he had received from Spain the promise of the 
Louisiana territory, which France had granted to Spain in 1763. 
With the port of New Orleans he hoped to control the growing 
trade of the Mississippi Valley, whether east or west of the 
river. To make good use of New Orleans it was necessary to 
restore French authority in the West Indies and particularly in 
San Domingo. During the Revolution this colony had been 
ruined by a slave insurrection, and now Toussaint Louverture 
ruled there in practical independence of France. A French 
army under Bonaparte's brother-in-law succeeded, in 1802, in 
overcoming open resistance. Toussaint was treacherously 
made prisoner and sent to France. But the French army was 
almost destroyed by yellow fever ; its commander died. The 
blacks, alarmed by reports that they were again to be enslaved, 
rose in insurrection. Bonaparte's scheme had caused great 
excitement in the United States. The people who lived west 
of the Alleghanies had long been angry because their trade 
with the outside world was hampered by the Spaniards at New 
Orleans. They saw at once that the situation would be unbear- 
able if a strong power like France got possession of the mouth 
of the river. President Jefferson declared that from the day 
" that France takes possession of New Orleans ... we must 
marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." Fortunately 
the stubborn resistance of the blacks of San Domingo disgusted 
Bonaparte with his dream of a colonial empire. He turned to 
his other schemes to increase French influence and strengthen 
his own power. It is hinted that to cover up a dubious retreat 
from San Domingo he hastened the beginning of the new war 
with England. As he could do nothing with Louisiana, he sold 
it to the United States, and so it came about that in Decem- 
ber, 1803, the Spaniards turned over the territory to the 
French commissioner, only that he might turn it over to the 
Americans. 

376. The Empire. — If during the early days after the 18th 
Brumaire Bonaparte dreamed of playing the part of Washing- 
ton, the power he found in his hands after the adoption of the 



THE EMPIRE 



365 



consular constitution stirred within him an ambition of a differ- 
ent kind. He skilfully used the popularity which the Peace 
of Amiens brought him to obtain the consulship for life, with 
the right to name his successor. Two years later, in 1804, 
after the outbreak of war with England, a conspiracy to assas- 




fit 



■jo 1 




Notre Dame, Paris. 

Here Napoleon crowned himself, December 2, 1804, after being 
anointed by Pope Pius VII. It was in this church that the 
festival of the Worship of Reason had been held in 1793. Notre 
Dame is a Gothic church, principally of the thirteenth century. 



sinate him led to another outburst of enthusiasm. Many felt 
that he was the only safeguard against a return of the political 
struggles of the Revolution. His admirers saw in the public 
feeling an opportunity to make him emperor. This was done 
in May, 1804, by what was called a "consultation of the sen- 
ate,'' confirmed by a national vote called a plebiscite. He now 



366 • THE RISE OF NAPOLEON 

became the Emperor Napoleon. To furnish him a court, titles of 
nobility were reestablished and many new officials were named 
to attend him. The structure of the government was little 
changed, for it had been essentially a monarchy since the 
beginning of the consulate. 

SUMMARY 

I. Victory of France made Secure. — 1. Campaign of 1796: (a) war 
spirit in the army ; (6) Napoleon Bonaparte ; (c) situation in 
Italy; (d) reasons for Bonaparte's success; (e) his Italian policy. 
2. Conflict with England : («) sea power after 1795 ; (b) failure 
of the Egyptian expedition ; (c) distress in England ; (d) greater 
distresses of France. 
II. Overthrow of French Constitution. — 1. Political parties. 2. The 
army as an arbiter. 3. Use made by General Bonaparte of the 
opportunity. 

III. The Consulate. — 1. Structure of government : (a) powers of first 

consul ; (6) how laws were made ; (c) power granted to the con- 
sul over local government. 2. Changes effected by Bonaparte : 
(«) Concordat, its aim and its settlement of the relations of 
Church and State ; (6) the Code in relation to the legislative work 
of the Revolution. 3. Foreign policy : (a) result of Marengo 
campaign; (b) "secularization" in Germany; (c) attempt of 
Bonaparte to reestablish colonial system. 

IV. Beginnings of Empire. — 1. Consulate for life. 2. Means by which 

the imperial title was conferred upon Bonaparte as Napoleon I. 

IMPORTANT PATES 

1796. Bonaparte's Italian campaign. 

1797, October. Peace of Campo Formic 

1799, November 9 (18 Brumaire). Overthrow of the Directory. 

1802. The Concordat proclaimed. Peace of Amiens. 

1803. Sale of Louisiana. "Secularizations" in Germany. War with 

England. 

1804. Bonaparte becomes the Emperor Napoleon I. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading, in addition to books mentioned in Chs. 21 and 22 : 
biographies by Fournier, Seeley, and Johnston. 



SUMMARY 367 

Paragraphs : 

363, 364. Italy and Bonaparte : Italy in 1796, Stephens, Rev. Europe, 
22-27 ; Fyffe, 75-80 ; Bonaparte's policy, Campo Formio, treaty, 
Anderson, No. 55, and Tr. and Rp., Vol.. II., No. 2, pp. 4-7. 

365. War against England : Egypt, Founder or Rose ; Colby, No. 107 ; 

India, Hunter ; for Nelson, Mahan. 

366. Condition of England : Blight, III., 1181-1184, 1188-1190. 

367. Bankruptcy in France : Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., 703-708. 

368. 369. French Politics, 1795-1799 : Rose, Revolutionary Era, 

Ch. 6; long accounts of Brumaire, Rose, Napoleon; • Lanfrey, 
Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII., Ch. 22 ; Brumaire and decree, Anderson, 
No. 57. 

370. The New Constitution : Fournier, 179-187, 221-236. 

371. Concordat: Rose, I., 249-262 ; Anderson, 64 ; see also paragraph 

195. 

372. The Code : Fournier, 230-232 ; compare paragraph 32. 

373. Lun^ville and Amiens: Fyffe, 150-153, 159-164; or Rose, Rev. 

Era, 124-132; Anderson, Nos. 62, 63; Tr. and Rp., II., No. 2, 
pp. 8-13 (Luneville). 

374. Reorganization of Germany: see especially Henderson, II., 

246-247 ; Fyffe, 166-173 ; for origin of these ecclesiastical states, 
see paragraph 70. 

375. Colonial Schemes : especially Henry Adams, History of the 

United States, Vol. I., Chs. 15-17, Vol. II., Chs. 1-2. 

376. The Empire : how it was created, Fournier, 270-282. 

Additional Reading : biographies of Napoleon, by Rose, 2 vols., Lanfrey, 
5 vols., and Sloane, 4 vols.; Taine's Modem Regime; Seeley's 
Stein, 3 vols. ; Mahan's Nelson, 12 vols.; Memoirs of Metternich, 
of Bourrienne, Madame de Remusat, Pasquier, Meneval, Chateau- 
briand. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 

377. The Napoleonic Period. — Until peace was made in 1801 
and 1802, France was fighting to carry out the ambitious plans 
which her Revolutionary leaders had formed for the acquire- 
ment of " natural frontiers." The use which Bonaparte made 
of the peace brought on another series of wars. He constantly 
declared that his aim was to secure a reasonable peace, but 
his acts roused monarchs and nations to resistance. A new 
patriotism was awakened in Spain and in Germany. Before 
the struggle was ended Napoleon's empire was destroyed and 
the frontiers of France were reduced to what they had been 
before the Revolution. 

378. War with England, 1803. —England was the first to 
begin war with France. The Peace of Amiens threatened to 
ruin her more quickly than the terrible burdens of the war it 
brought to an end, for she found all the ports of Europe which 
the French controlled practically closed to her ships. Na- 
poleon would make no treaty of commerce. His troops still 
occupied Holland, and they entered Switzerland to change the 
constitution of the republic. Piedmont was annexed to France, 
and Napoleon had himself elected president of the Cisalpine, 
renamed the Italian republic. War began in 1803, and for 
two years England fought single-handed. Napoleon gathered 
a great army on the borders of the Channel and alarmed the 
English by his preparations to invade England, although it is 
doubtful whether he seriously intended to risk an adventure so 
similar to his Egyptian expedition. 

379. General War, 1805. — Napoleon's aggressions in Italy 
continued after he became emperor. He took the crown of the 

368 



GENERAL WAR 



369 



new kingdom which was formed out of the Italian republic 
and annexed Genoa to France. These acts angered and 
alarmed both the Emperor Francis and the Tsar Alexander. 
Francis would have acted more quickly had he not been anx- 
ious first to assume the title " Emperor of Austria." Up to 
1804 he had been emperor 
of the Holy Roman or 
German Empire as well 
as king of Hungary and 
Bohemia, but the successes 
of the French had seri- 
ously shaken the Empire 
and Francis feared it would 
disappear and leave him 
simply a king. His new 
title was recognized in 
1804, and the year follow- 
ing he joined the third 
coalition or alliance 
against France. Napo- 
leon promptly abandoned 
all pretence of invading 
England and marched his 
disciplined troops across 
northern France and 
southern Germany to at- 
tack the Austrians before 
the Russians could come to their assistance. He surrounded 
one Austrian army at Ulm and forced it to surrender, October 
20, 1805. This opened the road to Vienna. Napoleon's tri- 
umph was rudely marred by an event that happened the next 
day hundreds of miles away, off Cape Trafalgar in southern 
Spain. Admiral Villeneuve, with the French and Spanish fleet, 
attempted to gain the Mediterranean from Cadiz, but was caught 
by an English fleet under Lord Nelson and overwhelmed. So 
complete was the victory that for at least two generations 




Lord Nelson. 

Horatio Nelson, born, 1758 ; died 
on board tbe Victory at the bat- 
tle of Trafalgar, October 21, 1805. 



370 



THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 



England's control of the sea was unquestioned. However far 
Napoleon might carry his conquests on land he must pause at 
the ocean. He marched on to Vienna and northward into 
Moravia, where the combined Austrian and Russian armies 




H. M. S. Victory. 

Nelson's flagship at the battle of Trafalgar. It was 
long rnaored at Portsmouth and used as a training ship. 

awaited him. As some of his troops had crossed Prussian 
neutral territory on the way to capture the Austrians at Ulm, 
and as Prussia was alarmed at the growth of French power, 
the Prussian king promised Francis and Alexander to mediate 
between them and Napoleon. If Napoleon did not accept the 
terms offered, the king agreed to join the allies with all his 



RESULTS OF WAR 371 

troops. On December 2, before the Prussians had time to 
interfere, Napoleon gained a brilliant victory at Austerlitz 
over both armies and forced the Emperor Francis to make 
peace at Pressburg. 

380. Prussia Crushed. — Napoleon knew enough about the 
Prussian plan to make him burn for vengeance, but for a time 
he contented himself with forcing the king to sign a treaty 
of alliance and to accept the electorate of Hanover, which 
belonged to George III. of England, with whom Prussia was 
not at war. In this way Prussia was forced to help France 
against England. A little later Napoleon thought he saw a 
chance to make peace with England, and he did not hesitate 
to offer to restore Hanover, although Prussia had occupied it. 
Such contemptuous treatment was too much for the Prussians. 
Unfortunately their army was not what it had been in the 
time of Frederick the Great. Its leaders were old and incom- 
petent, and it was utterly overthrown at Jena and Auerstadt, 
October 14, 1806. The stubborn valor of Prussia's Russian 
allies prolonged the war until July, 1807. After Napoleon's 
victory at Friedland, treaties of peace were concluded at 
Tilsit. 

381. Results of War. — The defeat of Austria had added 
Venice to the new kingdom of Italy. Since the Neapolitan 
king had declared for the Austrians at the opening of the war, 
he was deposed and Napoleon's brother Joseph placed on the 
throne. This meant that French institutions would take the 
place of the mediaeval social order that lingered in southern 
Italy. The greatest change came in Germany, where the Holy 
Roman Empire was formally dissolved. Many petty princes 
and barons who had been practically independent were sub- 
jected to the larger states within or near whose borders they 
lived. This was called " mediatization," because the powers 
which they had held " immediately " of the emperor they now 
held "mediately," through their particular rulers. It fur- 
thered the work of unification begun in 1803. Bavaria and 
AVtirtemberg, and a little later Saxony, were made kingdoms, 



372 THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 

and Baden was made a grand duchy, as they remain to-day. 
These with other southern states were united in a Confedera- 
tion of the Rhine, of which Napoleon was Protector. Holland, 
which had been under French control since 1795, was made a 
kingdom and Napoleon's younger brother Louis was proclaimed 
king. The Peace of Tilsit led to no such permanent conse- 
quences, except that it enabled the Tsar Alexander to seize 
Finland, which belonged to Sweden. Prussia was despoiled of 
her lands west of the Elbe in order that Napoleon might make 
a kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome, and of her 
Polish provinces that he might construct a grand duchy of 
Warsaw for the king of Saxony. 

382. The Continental Blockade. — In such a struggle it was 
natural that commerce should pass more and more into the 
hands of those peoples which were at peace with both England 
and France. The only important trading country that was able 
for a time to keep out of the conflict was the United States. 
The English watched with jealous anxiety the growth of 
American trade with Europe, particularly in the colonial 
products of the French, because this meant the employment 
of fewer English ships. It also meant that the government 
would have difficulty in raising taxes for the war or in finding 
experienced seamen for the navy. There was danger that the 
neutral shipmasters would pay such good wages that sailors 
would desert from English merchant vessels and even from 
war vessels. Consequently, in 1805, the English government 
began to confiscate American vessels which traded, even in- 
directly, between England's enemies and their colonies. Her 
war-ships also began to search American vessels for English 
seamen. When Fox, an old friend of America, became minis- 
ter, after the death of William Pitt, he tried to be more con- 
ciliatory by declaring that neutrals must not enter the ports 
from the Seine River to Ostend, nor those from Brest to the 
Elbe, if they hailed from a port hostile to England. Napoleon 
retaliated by declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, 
forbidding all trade with them or the ownership of any British 



THE FATE OF DENMARK AND PORTUGAL 373 

goods. This order, or decree, dated at Berlin in November, 
1806, after the battle of Jena, was not carried out for several 
months, but the English replied by further hindering neutral 
trade with the Continent. After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon 
enforced his decree, while the English at the same time insisted 
on their right to search vessels for seamen. When President 
Jefferson heard of these measures, he recommended to Congress 
the adoption of an embargo, which would prevent all American 
vessels from leaving port and would cause the confiscation of 
any English or French vessels attempting to enter American 
ports. Congress decided to do this, and the measure remained 
the law until March, 1809, when an act forbidding trade with 
England and France was substituted for it. Meantime the 
English had struck another blow at neutrals by turning against 
Napoleon his own weapon of a " paper " blockade, making all 
vessels liable to seizure if they traded with any European port 
hostile to England. It was provided in the same orders that 
if such vessels stopped on their way at an English port and 
paid for a license, they could trade with Europe. Napoleon 
immediately declared that any neutral vessel which complied 
with such rules was an English vessel in disguise and would 
be confiscated. Thus the neutral was ground to pieces between 
the upper and nether millstone. 

383. The Fate of Denmark and Portugal. — The Americans 
were not the only neutrals who suffered, and their loss was at 
first mainly that of an opportunity to make money which would 
not have been theirs had the great wars not broken out. It 
was a part of the secret agreements at Tilsit that unless Eng- 
land should make peace the states in Europe not at war with 
her must be forced to declare war. This was aimed especially 
at Denmark and Portugal. The English, suspecting such an 
agreement, resolved to defeat the scheme and sent a large fleet 
to Copenhagen in August, 1807, to demand that Denmark con- 
clude a defensive alliance, intrusting her fleet to England to 
be kept as a " sacred pledge." When the Danes refused, 
Copenhagen was bombarded and forced to surrender and the 



374 THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 

fleet was seized. Although Napoleon professed to be shocked 
at such an outrage, he was already preparing to send an army 
overland into Portugal for a similar purpose. Before this 
army could reach Lisbon, the Portuguese royal family decided 
to take refuge in Brazil, their colony beyond the Atlantic, and 
thither they sailed, convoyed by a British fleet. 

384. The Fate of Spain. — Napoleon's Spanish allies believed 
they were to share the spoils of Portugal. Instead, they were 
to become victims of the same unscrupulous will to master 
every region where French interests were seemingly at stake. 
In the spring of 1808, browbeaten by Napoleon, whose troops 
already occupied Madrid, the Spanish king Charles and his 
son Ferdinand surrendered their claims to the throne into 
his hands and accepted a pension. Napoleon transferred his 
brother Joseph from the throne of Naples to the Spanish 
throne. Immediately the whole country rose in revolt. The 
English government sent an army to Spain under Sir Arthur 
Wellesley, later the duke of Wellington. Two French armies 
were obliged to surrender, and King Joseph was forced to fly 
from Madrid. While Napoleon was attempting to control 
Spain, he also despoiled the pope of his states and annexed 
them to the French empire. This act filled the Spaniards with 
the feeling that they had entered upon a new crusade. 

385. Another Austrian War. — The stubbornness of Spanish 
resistance tempted the Austrians, in April, 1809, to try to 
recover in a new war what they had lost at Austerlitz. For 
a time after the battle of Aspern, in May, Napoleon's army 
was in danger of ruin under the very walls of Vienna, but 
the dearly bought victory of Wagram in July compelled Aus- 
tria to make peace once more. Napoleon thought he could 
turn the peace into a family alliance by marrying Marie 
Louise, the daughter of the Emperor Francis. It was at this 
time that his marriage with Josephine was annulled. 

386. The Spanish War. — Meantime the Spanish War dragged 
on. Neither Napoleon's victories nor those of his marshals 
could subdue the country. Probably one of Napoleon's mo- 



REFORM IN PRUSSIA 375 

tives in seizing Portugal and Spain had been to strengthen 
his Continental System against England, but the result worked 
altogether the other way. Spain, from being an enemy to 
England, became an ally, open to English commerce wherever 
not controlled by French troops. Moreover, her vast colonial 
empire in the new world was thrown open to trade, so that 
England's overloaded markets found immediate relief, and her 
exports rapidly increased. Incidentally, these colonies became 
the scene of troubles between the Spanish officers, who still 
wished everything managed from Spain, and the colonists, who 
wished to have some part in the resistance to Napoleon. The 
result was the growth of a spirit of independence. 

387. Reform in Prussia. — In Prussia the years immediately 
following the humiliating Peace of Tilsit were used in reor- 
ganizing the kingdom. Frederick William III. had been 
anxious, from the beginning of his reign, to resume the task of 
freeing the serfs, which was begun in the eighteenth century, 
but abandoned by his father. The serfs on the royal domains 
had been freed, and it was arranged that they should become 
the proprietors of the lands on which they dwelt if they agreed 
to pay a certain sum of money in place of the services they 
had been accustomed to render. This important reform had 
gone forward slowly; more rapidly in the old Marks and in 
Pomerania than in the Prussian provinces arid in Silesia. The 
nobles had steadily resisted any effort to do the same with the 
serfs on their domains. In 1807 the ills of the land were so 
great that sharp medicine was needed, if the whole people 
were to gain strength and unity enough to assert their in- 
dependence against the conqueror. Accordingly Frederick 
William, under the advice of Baron Stein, issued an edict, 
October 9, declaring all the peasants free, and breaking down 
the rigid system of classes, which prevented the healthy 
growth of the nation. Henceforth a citizen might become 
a peasant, or a peasant a citizen. Land could be freely bought 
and sold, and even the peasant could acquire "noble" land, as 
well as the noble acquire " peasant " land. The edict went too 



376 



THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 



far to suit the nobles, but not far enough to suit the reformers. 
The services which the peasants had been obliged to render 
on the estates of the nobles were not abolished, nor did the 
tenants of farms become the owners. Four years later another 

statesman, Hardenberg, 
provided that peasants 
could surrender to their 
lord a portion of their 
land in place of the ser- 
vices due, and could in this 
way become real owners 
of their farms. Although 
the nobles in many re- 
gions resisted the change, 
it gradually built up a 
class of prosperous small 
farmers within the Prus- 
sian kingdom. The same 
statesman also gave more 
power of self-government 
to the towns and recon- 
structed the central gov- 
ernment, so that Prussians 
look back to this time as 
one in which out of their 
deep humiliation they 
arose to new life and vigor. 
388. Napoleon's Influence. — These changes in Prussia were 
partly due to the spread of French ideas about the rights of 
men and the way men should be organized in society. Since 
the triumph of Napoleon over Russia and Prussia in 1807, 
French laws and French reforms had been introduced into the 
grand duchy of Warsaw, Prussia's Polish neighbor, and into 
those Prussian lands that had been taken away to form the 
kingdom of Westphalia. Other German states, particularly 
those in south Germany, belonging to the Confederation of 




Baron vom Stein. 

Heinrich Friedrich Karl, Baron vom Stein, 
with residence as Knight of the Empire 
at Burg Stein. Born, 1757; died, 1831. 
Entered the Prussian service in 1780. In 
1800 his barony was absorbed in Nassau. 



ENGLISH INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE 377 

the Rhine, had begun to abolish serfdom and organize a better 
administration. The French empire exerted a great influence 
because it was so strong, and because by 1810 it extended 
from the Baltic to the frontier of Naples. The kingdom of 
Holland had been absorbed, as well as several principalities 
and important cities north of Holland. In the far south the 
lands of the pope had been annexed, or given to the kingdom 
of Italy. Many of the changes made under French influence 
were so advantageous that they outlived the empire itself. 
Even the French code of laws was retained with slight modi- 
fications in countries like Holland, Belgium, and Naples. 
Such were the benefits of Napoleon's work and of the French 
success, but his tyrannical conduct toward weaker states made 
his memory hateful. He treated his allies with brutal con- 
tempt if they ventured to differ with him. When the king 
of Bavaria hesitated to give his daughter in marriage to 
Napoleon's stepson, Eugene de Beauharnais, Napoleon threat- 
ened to send a body of grenadiers and take her by force. He 
regarded resistance to his schemes as stupid folly. 

389. English Industry and Agriculture. — It seems strange 
that England was able to endure the burden of the long strug- 
gle with Napoleon, which hindered her trade and made taxes 
so crushing. When the Peace of Amiens was made, the Eng- 
lish debt was nearly three billion dollars. The interest on the 
debt and the increasing expenses caused the income tax to be 
ten per cent, of all incomes over one thousand dollars. W T hen 
the new series of wars broke out, England was expected to 
contribute money to the allies since she could not put her 
share of men in the field. The task would have been too 
great but for the new riches she had begun to draw from agri- 
culture and industry. The new machinery enabled the Eng- 
lish spinners and weavers to make thread and cloth at a cost 
one-half or one-third of what it had been. The English mer- 
chants could afford to pay the expense of smuggling the articles 
into Europe and sell at a price lower than that at which the 
same goods could be produced on the Continent. 



378 THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 

390. The War of 1812. — In 1812, when England needed 
all her resources for a final struggle with Napoleon, she was 
weakened by a war with the United States. This grew out of 
her attacks upon neutral trade, although before it began Eng- 
land had withdrawn the offensive orders. The war brought 
little glory to either country. The English, in 1812 and 1813, 
were mainly occupied by the Spanish campaign and could not 
send to America large bodies of troops. Their navy held un- 
disputed possession of the seas, though American frigates, like 
the Constitution, won brilliant victories in single ship actions, 
and American squadrons gained control of the lakes. Peace 
was made in 1814, but the news was so late in reaching 
America that in January, 1815, the British veterans of the 
Spanish campaign received a bloody repulse before New Orleans. 

391. The Russian Campaign. — The friendship between Na- 
poleon and the Tsar Alexander was short-lived. Alexander was 
indignant that the trade of Russia with England in ship tim- 
ber, naval supplies, and wheat should be ruined, while Napo- 
leon licensed French merchants to trade directly with the 
English. The tsar also feared that the grand duchy of War- 
saw might grow into a new kingdom of Poland. Alexander 
offended Napoleon by deciding to admit colonial goods if they 
were brought in American ships. To Napoleon it seemed as if 
Alexander were about to withdraw from the struggle against 
England. The result of these misunderstandings and jealous- 
ies was an outbreak of war between Russia and France in 
1812. Napoleon had organized an army of nearly four hun- 
dred thousand men. He hoped to reach the Russian frontier 
before the tsar could advance into Prussian territory. This 
was what the tsar wanted, for he planned to draw the French 
far from their base of supplies, within the interminable plains 
of Russia. His plan was successful. Napoleon fought his 
way to Moscow, only to find himself surrounded by the smok- 
ing ruins of that city. He did not begin his retreat early 
enough, and before he had gone far winter set in. Between 
constant attacks by the Russians and the bitter cold most of 



OBSTACLES TO PEACE 379 

the " Grand Army " perished. Napoleon left the remnant in the 
hands of his generals and hastened back to Paris to organize 
a new army, for he felt that in 1813 many of the states which 
had hitherto cringed before him would attempt to throw off 
the hated yoke. 

392. The Wars of Liberation. — Prussia's opportunity had 
come. The king had been forced to send an army under Gen- 
eral Yorck to assist Napoleon in the Russian war. This army 
joined the Russians as soon as the extent of the French losses 
was known. In February, 1813, the king, who had called the 
act treason because he did not dare defy Napoleon, made a 
treaty with the tsar. By extraordinary efforts Napoleon got 
together an army and won two or three victories, but in the 
days of his supremacy he had too deeply wronged his enemies 
not to find them all gathering for his ruin, now that he was no 
longer omnipotent. The Austrians declared that the time had 
come to undo the work of 1809 and 1810 ; that they must have 
back some of their lost possessions, and that Napoleon must 
give up the lands he had annexed on the Baltic and restore to 
Prussia the parts of Poland he had taken away. Napoleon 
would not make peace on these or any other reasonable terms, 
and so the Austrians joined the allies. In Spain, Wellington 
was steadily fighting his way northward toward the French 
frontier. In spite of overwhelming odds, Napoleon gained 
one more victory at Dresden in August, but a little later suf- 
fered defeat at Leipsic. Even then he would not reconcile 
himself to restoring the territory that the allies insisted upon. 
In 1814 the campaign began within the borders of France. 
New victories filled Napoleon with the assurance that all 
might yet be saved, nor did he understand the state of affairs 
until his own generals compelled him, April 6, to abdicate. 
The allies allowed him to retain the title of emperor, and to 
take as his domain the little island of Elba, near the Italian 
coast. 

393. Obstacles to Peace. — The task of the allies was not 
completed when Napoleon was overthrown. Europe had been 



380 THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 

torn with war for over twenty years. Each successive peace 
had redrawn the map of Europe. Old rights had been swept 
away and new interests had been created. It was probable 
that these questions would find the different governments at 
odds with one another and that a settled peace would be 
impossible. A congress of ministers and princes was assem- 
bled at Vienna in the fall of 1814 to decide what should be 
done with the ruins of both the old and the new Europe. 
Serious disputes arose because Russia was determined to 
annex nearly all the grand duchy of Warsaw, while Prussia 
wished Saxony, whose ruler had been Napoleon's most con- 
stant ally. England and Austria, supported by France, were 
ready to go to war rather than permit such a scheme to be 
carried out. Peace was also endangered by France, which 
had once more fallen under the rule of the Bourbons. Louis 
XVIII., the brother of Louis XVI., mounted the throne, dating 
his acts from the nineteenth year of his reign, as if nothing 
had happened in France since the little dauphin, Louis XVII., 
the son of Louis XVI., had died in his Paris prison. The 
nobles who were living in exile returned, expecting that their 
desire for vengeance upon their Revolutionary foes would now 
be satisfied and that all the offices and rewards would be 
theirs. The old officers of the Napoleonic armies watched 
this spectacle in a disgust and anger which boded ill to the 
new reign. < 

394. The Waterloo Campaign. — In March, 1815, before 
the Congress of Vienna was ended, news came that Napoleon 
had escaped from Elba, that he was marching through France, 
hailed by the very soldiers sent out to arrest him, and, a little 
later, that he was in Paris, and that the Bourbons had fled. 
It seemed as if the struggle of 1813 and 1814 was to begin 
again. Napoleon reestablished the empire and assembled an 
army in some respects better than the army of 1814, for peace 
had released many soldiers, veterans of the earlier campaigns, 
who had been imprisoned in Prussia and Russia. The 
campaign was brief. Napoleon marched northward toward 



THE WATERLOO CAMPAIGN 



381 



Brussels to defeat the English army under Wellington and 
the Prussians under Blucher, before the Russians or the 
Austrians could begin the campaign. At first he was success- 
ful. The Prussians were defeated at Ligny, June 16. On the 
same day, Wellington had checked Marshal Ney at Quatres 
Bras, five miles away. Napo- 
leon had an opportunity to 
crush Wellington the next 
morning, but he no longer 
moved as rapidly as in his 
early wars. Wellington re- 
tired to the fields in front 
of Waterloo. Here, June 18, 
a great battle was fought. 
Part of the French army had 
taken the wrong road in 
pursuing Blucher and never 
reached the battle-field. Well- 
ington stubbornly defended 
his ground against all attacks. 
As the struggle increased in 
fury, the Prussians appeared 
on the field. Napoleon was 
forced to use troops of his 
reserve against them, and this 
hindered his attacks on the 
English. Finally his Old 
Guard failed in an assault on 
the English position, other 

Prussian regiments appeared, and the terrible cry was heard, 
" Save, who can." The defeat was so overwhelming that the 
French army disbanded. Napoleon returned to Paris and 
again abdicated. Failing in an attempt to escape to America, 
he went on board an English war vessel, insisting that the 
English government should permit him to reside quietly in 
England. But the government, acting in agreement with the 




Duke of Wellington. 

Arthur Wellesley, born, 1769; died, 
1852. Knighted in 1805 for service in 
India. Commander of the British 
forces in the Peninsula (Spain and 
Portugal) in 1808. In 1812 his suc- 
cesses earned him the title of Mar- 
quis of Wellington. He became 
Duke of AVellington two years later. 
Prime Minister of England, 1828-1830. 



382 THE CONQUEST OF EUBOPE 

allies, sent him to the island of St. Helena, where he was care- 
fully guarded until his death, six years later. 

395. The Terms of Peace, 1815. — By the agreements 
made at Vienna, and at Paris after the Waterloo campaign, 
the old map of Europe was partially restored, but there were 
several changes of importance. France was left with little 
more than the frontiers she had before the Revolution. In 
Italy Venice went to Austria and Genoa to the kingdom of 
Sardinia. The German states remained as they were in 
1806, except that Saxony was forced to give up half its terri- 
tory to Prussia. Prussia also gained lands on the left bank 
of the Rhine, which had been in French hands since 1795. To 
Holland, henceforward called the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
were given the lands which before the victories of France had 
been the Austrian Netherlands, and which now are included in 
Belgium. Nearly all the grand duchy of Warsaw went to the 
Tsar Alexander, who promised to rule it separately from 
Russia and as a constitutional monarchy. Russia retained 
Finland, and Sweden was compensated by the acquisition of 
Norway which belonged to Denmark. This decision meant 
that a great Slav power was thrust farther west in Europe 
than ever before. The gains of Prussia, replacing her losses of 
Polish territory, were more valuable to her, because they con- 
tained a pure German population and made Prussia a better 
representative of German interests than Austria could be. 
There was no attempt to restore the Holy Roman Empire, 
but the German states were grouped in a confederation under 
the honorary presidency of Austria. Although the tide of 
French conquest had receded, leaving the boundaries of 
Europe much as they had been in 1792, the better organization 
of society which the French had introduced did not every- 
where disappear, but remained as a permanent result of their 
work. 



THE SETTLEMENT OF 1815 



383 




384 THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 



SUMMARY 

I. Napoleon's Mastery Established. — 1. His aggressive policy : 

(a) annexations make peace with England impossible ; (&) rea- 
sons why Austria was not ready for war in 1803 ; (c) reasons for 
the vacillation of Prussia. 2. Results : (a) victories of Auster- 
litz, Jena, and Friedland ; (6) treatment of Naples and Prussia; 
(c) dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire ; (d) petty states dis- 
appear ; (e) states which benefited. 3. Attempt to coerce Eng- 
land : (a) danger to English trade from neutrals ; (6) origin of 
Berlin decree, orders in council, Milan decree ; (c) effect on 
neutrals, especially Americans ; (d) treatment of Denmark and 
Portugal ; (e) seizure of Spain and effect upon Spanish colonies 
and English trade; (/) England's sources of strength. 4. Prussia 
seeks strength in reform : (a) previous efforts to abolish serfdom ; 

(b) abolition of caste system ; (c) feudal dues. 5. Benefits and 
evils of Napoleonic rule : (a) reorganization of society and 
introduction of better system of law ; (6) tyranny over the 
weak. 

II. Overthrow of Napoleon. — 1. Russian campaign : (a) reasons for 
the war; (/>) ruin of the "Grand Army." 2. Wars of libera- 
tion : (a) Torek's conduct ; (b) policy of the Austrians ; (c) ad- 
vance of Wellington ; (d) reason for Napoleon's abdication. 
3. Obstacles to peace : (a) struggle for territory ; (b) discontent 
in France. 4. Napoleon's final attempt : (a) his escape from Elba 
and reception in France ; (b) causes of his defeat at Waterloo ; 

(c) his exile. 5. Terms of peace : («) frontiers of France ; 
(6) gains of Prussia; (c) settlement in Germany; (cZ) case of 
Poland. 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1805, October 21. Battle of Trafalgar. 

1805, December 2. Battle of Austerlitz. 

180(3, October. Battles of Jena and Auerstadt (connect Berlin decree). 

1807, July. Peace of Tilsit. 

1807, October. Prussian reform decree. 

1808. Seizure of Spain. 
1812. Russian campaign. 

1814, April. First abdication of Napoleon. 

1815, June 18. Battle of Waterloo. 



SUMMARY 385 



FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : see Chs. 21-23. 
Paragraphs : 

378. Causes of the New War: different points of view, Fournier, 

251 ff. ; Lanfrey, II., Ch. 7 ; Rose, Napoleon, I., Ch. 17 ; invasion 
of England, Rose, Essays, Appendix. 

379. Trafalgar: Mahan, Nelson, II., Ch. 23; Henderson, Side Lights, 

Group 30 ; Austerlitz campaign, Fyffe, 192-200 ; Colby, No. 109. 

380. Prussia Crushed : Henderson, II., 270-295; Seeley, Stein, I., 240- 

2G4. 

381. Naples : Anderson, No. 75, A and B, Confederation of the Rhine ; 

Abdication of Francis, Anderson, No. 78, A and D ; Tr. and Bp., 
Vol. II., No. 2, pp. 14-17 ; Colby, No. 110. For review on origin 
and history of the Holy Roman Empire, see paragraphs 109, 155, 
156, 248, 250, 323. 

382. Continental Blockade: decrees, Anderson, No. 77, A-G; Tr. 

and Bp., ibid., 17-26 ; for explanation see especially Rose, Napo- 
leonic Era, 171-172, 176-177, 184, 206, 213-218 ; Mahan, Sea 
Power, II., Ch. 18. 

383. Copenhagen Affair: especially Fournier, 414-416 ; English view, 

Rose, Napoleon, II., 128-141 ; or Fyffe, 236-240. 

384. Spain: Anderson, No. 81 ; explanations in Fournier or Rose. 

386. Economic Consequences of Spanish War : Rose,. Bev. Era, 

214 ff. 

387. Reform in Prussia : edict, Tr. and Bp., ibid., 27-30 ; see Hender- 

son, Germany, II., Ch. 7 ; Seeley, I., 430-458. 

388. Annexation of Papal States : Anderson, No. 84, A and B ; 

Jervis, Ch. 12 ff. 

389. See 325, 326, and references. 

390. Compare 382. 

392. Wars of Liberation: Henderson, II., 295-316 ; Colby, No. 111. 

393. First Restoration : Fyffe, 375-380; Pasquier, II., Chs. 17 ff. 

394. Waterloo Campaign: especially Rose, II., Ch„ 40; Colby, No. 

112 ; Henderson, Side Lights, Group 31. 

395. Terms of Peace: treaty of Paris of 1814, Anderson, No. 91 ; see 

Rose, 324-335; Fyffe, 357-364; Seeley, III., 231-349; Metter- 
nich, Memoirs, I., 683-715. 

Additional Reading: Fisher, Napoleonic Policy in Germany; John- 
ston, Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy, 2 vols. 



386 THE CONQUEST OF EUROPE 

Review, Chs. 21-24 ; period, 1789-1815 : the Revolutionary and Napole- 
onic Era. 

Special Reviews : 
I. Geographical Changes. — 1. Germany: (a) Prussia gains part of 
Saxony and territories on the Rhine ; (&) disappearance from 
German map of many small states, including ecclesiastical princi- 
palities ; (c) Holy Roman Empire dissolved. 2. Russia gains 
(a) most of Poland, and (b) Finland. 3. Sweden gains Norway 
in exchange for Finland. 4. Venice annexed by Austria. 
5. Genoa annexed by Sardinia. 6. England gains several French 
and Dutch colonies, including Ceylon and the Cape. 
II. France as a Leader in Revolutionary Change. — 1. Abolition 
of feudal system : (a) decrees of August 4 ; (6) policy adopted in 
December, 1792, for territory occupied by French armies ; (c) re- 
sult of annexations to France ; (d) changes effected in kingdoms 
ruled by Napoleon's brothers. 2. Legal reforms : (a) those made 
in France ; (6) embodied in the Code ; (c) adoption of Code in 
other countries. 3. Changes in the Church : (a) confiscation of 
Church property in France ; (6) secularization of Church states 
in Germany ; (c) separation of Church and State in France, 
1794-1802 ; (d) the Concordat. 4. Reorganization of states : 
(a) aspirations after unity aroused in Italy ; (&) changes in Ger- 
many by "secularization" and " mediatization " ; (c) German 
states made kingdoms ; (d) Holland a kingdom ; (e) partial res- 
toration of Poland. 

III. Revolutionary France in the Role of Louis XIV. — 1. Original 

attitude of revolutionary France toward conquest. 2. France 
forcibly carries republican institutions among her neighbors. 

3. Ambition to attain "natural" frontiers, which incidentally 
renders necessary controlling influence in Italy and in Germany. 

4. Antagonism to England leads France to attempt to control the 
policy of Europe by Continental system. 5. Result : all Europe 
united against France, as in 1702, and France is overwhelmed by 
1814 and 1815, as in 1713 and 1714. 

IV. Events Touching American History. — 1. Impression made by the 

Revolution on America. 2. Effect of war' upon American com- 
merce : (a) after 1793 ; (&) after 1805 ; (c) the Continental sys- 
tem ; (d) American methods of retaliation ; (e) the War of 1812. 
V. Leading Men of the Period : Mirabeau, Lafayette, Danton, Robes- 
pierre, Napoleon ; Pitt, Nelson, Wellington ; Stein ; Alexander I. ; 
Pius VII. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

REORGANIZED EUROPE 

396. The Uses of Peace. — The wars, which had continued 
with scarcely a pause from 1792 to 1815, were followed by a 
longer period of peace than western Europe had ever known. 
From 1815 until 1848 there were only " military promenades," 
like the French invasion of Spain in 1823, or bloody insur- 
rections, like those of the Parisians and of the Poles in 1830. 
Such a long period of quiet was needed for the reorganization 
of the industrial and commercial life of Europe. The indus- 
trial inventions which the English had long been using were 
almost unknown on the Continent. The effect of this re- 
organization upon the way people lived and worked was as 
important as the effect of the French Revolution upon their 
social rights and their political aims. 

397. English Industry and Trade. — At the close of the war 
England was staggering under a debt of over £800,000,000 ; 
her workmen were reduced almost to beggary, and her system 
of taxation enriched the landowners rather than the public 
treasury. Her laws forbade employees to unite to obtain 
higher wages. Ancient statutes still kept from office Prot- 
estant dissenters and Catholics. Catholics were not even 
allowed to vote. Some of the great manufacturing towns had 
no representatives in Parliament, while boroughs which had 
lost nearly all their inhabitants and were owned by landlords 
could send one or two members. Many of these injustices 
would have been removed earlier had the English not been 
frightened by the course of the French Revolution. As soon 

387 



388 



REORGANIZED EUROPE 



as the war ceased the struggle for reform began. In industry 
and trade England had an advantage over her rivals because 
through the war she had crippled their commerce and because 
by 1815 she had partially developed the factory system, while 
they generally used the old domestic system of manufacture. 
The English increased this advantage by introducing railways 
and steamships earlier than did other countries. With the 
growth of the manufacturing towns came a demand for the 
reduction of taxes on imported grain in order that bread might 




An Early English Steamboat. 

The earliest British passenger steamer was the Comet, launched on the 
Clyde in 1812, five years after the Clermont was launched at New York. 

be cheaper. Clear-sighted men saw that the old Navigation 
laws, adopted in the struggle with the Dutch nearly two cen- 
turies before, must be changed and the high tariffs reduced in 
order that trade might be freer. Since what was done brought 
new prosperity, further steps were ventured upon. Parlia- 
ment modified the laws which made strikes a crime and in- 
creased the regulations for the protection of men, women, 
and children compelled to work long hours in unhealthy mills 
or in coal mines. In 1828 and 1829 the laws disqualifying 
dissenters and Catholics were repealed. There was no change 



REORGANIZATION OF GERMAN TRADE 



389 



in the system of representation in Parliament until another 
wave of revolution had swept over Europe. 

398. Reorganization of German Trade. — So long as the war 
lasted French and' German manufacturers had been protected 
from English competition by the Continental blockade. Peace 
threatened to bring disaster to those industries which had 
grown up under this shelter, unless English goods were 
barred out by a system of tariffs. The danger led to the 
formation of protectionist parties. In Prussia the trouble was 




Puffing Billy. 

The first British railway locomotive was constructed 
in 1804; the first American locomotive in 1830. 



increased by the fact that the old provincial tariffs levied on 
goods passing from one province to another still existed. As 
Prussia was divided into provinces so Germany was divided 
into states, — Prussia, Saxony, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, 
Hanover, Austria, and many smaller principalities. Although 
bound together politically in a confederation, the industrial 
life of each state was entirely independent. Prussia took the 
lead in uniting Germany commercially, as years later she 
succeeded in forming a stronger political union. The first 
step was to enact a uniform but low tariff for all her scattered 
provinces. This step compelled several small principalities 



390 REORGANIZED EUROPE 

which were surrounded by Prussian lands to make a customs 
union or Zollverein with Prussia, in 1819 and the years follow- 
ing, according to which there was to be but one tariff frontier 
for the group, and the smaller states were to have their share 
of the receipts. At first the larger states attempted to or- 
ganize rival groups, but by 1837 Saxony, Bavaria, and other 
states had joined the Zollverein, which then included a German 
population of twenty-six millions. Hanover, with Oldenburg 
and Brunswick, still maintained an independent organization. 
The German districts of Austria were not admitted. When a 
currency unit was introduced, it bore on its face the effigy of 
the king of Prussia. There was an assembly of delegates from 
the various states which foreshadowed the coming of a real 
German parliament. Treaties of commerce were made with 
foreign countries in the name of the union. Trade throughout 
the country was rendered easier by the construction of macad- 
amized roads. After 1835 railways were built. The greater 
ease of communication between different parts of the country 
broke down the narrow devotion of each citizen to his own 
state and made him more loyal to Germany. 

399. Development of France. — In France it was unnecessary 
to abolish provincial custom-houses or to work for more unity 
and a greater national spirit, because the old monarchy had 
kept the great lords from developing into kings and princes 
like those in Germany and the Revolution had completed the 
work of union. The changes in French industry were impor- 
tant chiefly as they enabled the country to make a better use 
of its resources. From 1815 manufacturers were endeavoring 
to replace methods of domestic manufacture by the factory 
system. English machines were imported or others con- 
structed upon similar plans. New industries were introduced. 
By 1840 it became possible to make the finer qualities of 
thread which hitherto had been imported from England. 
Agriculture was transformed by a better system of rotation of 
crops. In order to reduce the price of sugar, brought almost 
wholly from the West Indies, the sugar beet was extensively 



THE RESTORATION IN FRANCE 391 

cultivated. The magnificent system of roads begun during the 
empire was rapidly developed. These roads were of three 
kinds, the national, departmental, and neighborhood. Even 
the neighborhood roads, important for the petty trade from 
village to village or from farm to farm, were macadamized. 
Railroads were of slow growth. It was not until after 1842, 
when the government undertook to share the burden, that long 
lines were built. As the result of the new factory system the 
cities grew rapidly. The condition of the working people 
gradually improved, although the working day was from 
twelve to fourteen hours long and many women and children 
were employed. These evils were partially remedied by new 
laws. 

400. The Restoration in France. — While these changes 
were going on in the industrial life of England and Europe, 
politicians, revolutionists, and statesmen were busy trying to 
settle some of the problems left by the men of the Revolu- 
tionary and Napoleonic period. After Waterloo, when Louis 
XVIII. returned to France, his chief difficulty arose from the de- 
mand of his friends for vengeance upon Napoleon's supporters 
and for a restoration of the ancient order of things. Accord- 
ing to the constitution which the king had granted there were 
a chamber of peers, selected from the older nobility and from 
those ennobled by Napoleon for service in the army or in the 
administration, and a chamber of deputies, elected by about 
ninety thousand voters, each of whom paid sixty dollars or 
more in direct taxes. Often the chamber of peers was more 
liberal than the chamber of deputies. Many of the peers had 
grown up under the Revolution and still believed in its 
principles. The deputies rallied about the king's brother, 
the count of Artois, and joined him in urging that the lands 
which had been taken from the nobles and the Church 
should be restored, and that the Church should be organ- 
ized as it was in the old regime, with an income from its 
own property and with entire charge of the schools. They 
even demanded that the king withdraw his promise to allow 



392 



REORGANIZED EUROPE 



religious freedom. They would not have obtained so much 
influence had not an obscure fanatic, who brooded over the 
memories of the empire, assassinated the son of the count of 
Artois, the hope of the Bourbon family. In 1820, when this 
happened, the king was too feeble to resist the demands of his 
brother, afterward Charles X., and really ceased to govern, 
though he lived until 1824. 

401 . Reaction in Germany. — Other European peoples were 
no better off than the French ; indeed they did not have even 

the rights the French en- 
joyed. When the Ger- 
mans, nobles, citizens, and 
peasants, had unitedly 
risen against Napoleon, 
some of their leaders had 
promised that the sacri- 
fices of the people should 
be rewarded by granting 
them written constitu- 
tions, with representative 
assemblies. As soon as 
the common danger was 
past, the old distrust with 
which the nobles regarded 
ordinary men revived. 
Prince Metternich, the 
chief minister of Austria, 
which was still the lead- 
ing state in the German 
confederation, persuaded the Prussian king not to keep his 
promises. Before Metternich's eyes rose the spectre of the 
French Revolution, and he argued that if Frederick Will- 
iam III. began to make concessions to political enthusiasts 
he would, like Louis XVI., find no place to pause before he 
had lost his power altogether. As in France, it was a murder 
which strengthened the enemies of the liberal party. The 



i 

* 


1 

Mm, 











Prince Metternich. 

Born, 1773; died, 1859. Chief 
minister of Austria, 1809-1848. 



THE "HOLY" ALLIANCE 393 

victim was a literary man named Kotzebue, an agent of the 
Russian government, who attacked the liberal cause in his 
newspaper, while the murderer was Sands, a theological stu- 
dent who thought to rid his country of a dangerous traitor. 
This happened in 1819. Metternich seized the opportunity to 
convince the ministers of the other governments in Germany 
that it was time to control the teaching in the universities and 
to compel the journals to publish nothing which had not been 
previously approved by a censor. In one matter he failed. 
He tried to persuade the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg 
and the grand duke of Baden to abandon their plan of having 
parliaments. They were clear-sighted enough to see that only 
by rallying their people about them could they resist the 
domineering advice of Austria. Prussia received no consti- 
tution, and the schemes of Stein and Hardenberg for the 
betterment of the condition of the peasants were not fully 
carried out. However, faithful Prussian officers in the prov- 
inces introduced a sound administration and prepared the 
scattered territories of the kingdom for a time when a sense of 
common interests would enable the people to demand some 
share in the government. 

402. The "Holy" Alliance. — In 1815 England, Russia, Prus- 
sia, and Austria had made an alliance to guard against a new 
outbreak of revolution in Prance. At the same time the Tsar 
Alexander became anxious that his brother rulers should prom- 
ise to be guided in the government of their peoples and in their 
dealings with one another by the principles of the Christian 
religion. This pledge, which they signed to please him, and 
which even the United States was asked to accept, was called 
the Holy Alliance. By the year 1818 France no longer caused 
her neighbors anxiety. Metternich and Alexander concluded 
that it would be well for the four governments, together with 
France, to do for Europe what they had been doing for France, 
that is, to check at the outset any revolutionary movement which 
by spreading might imperil the peace of Europe. The English 
ministry was reluctant to join in such a meddlesome policy. 



394 REORGANIZED EUROPE 

But Metternich gained his point, for, as soon as the revolutions 
of 1820 in Spain and Naples forced the kings of Spain and of 
Naples to grant constitutions, he called conferences of the allies 
to decide how to put down the revolutionists. The alliance had 
now come to be confused with the Holy Alliance, and this title 
clung to it. The revolutionists of Naples were obliged to give 
way before an Austrian army and the old government became 
more oppressive than before. 

403. The Affairs of Spain. — The Spanish affair could not be 
settled so easily. The French were determined to act alone, 
while the English were anxious that the Spaniards should be 
left to settle their difficulties with King Ferdinand. Canning, 
the English minister, was heartily sick of the pretensions of 
the " Holy " allies. There was another reason why the English 
were displeased. When the Spanish colonies had revolted 
against Napoleon's brother Joseph, the English had begun to 
trade freely with them, a privilege which did not exist under 
the old colonial system of Spain. Several colonies submitted 
to King Ferdinand after he was restored, but as he tried 
to practice the old tyrannies, the revolt broke out once more, 
and by 1822 had every prospect of succeeding. In that year 
the United States recognized the independence of Buenos Ayres, 
Chili, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Since the allies proposed 
not only to free the Spanish king from his constitution, but also 
to help him win back his lost colonies, possibly taking a part 
of them as a reward, England saw that her growing trade was 
threatened. The United States was also alarmed, especially by 
Russian advance southward from Alaska along the Pacific coast. 
Canning suggested that England and the United States join in 
a declaration opposing the schemes of the allies. The American 
government felt that it would be wiser to issue a separate dec- 
laration. After the French army had restored King Ferdinand 
to power in 1823, rumors that the allies were completing their 
plans led Canning to intimate plainly to both France and Spain 
the disapproval of England. This of itself must have been de- 
cisive, because since Trafalgar no combination of European states 



REVOLT OF THE GREEKS 395 

could send an expedition across the seas without England's con- 
sent. To England's opposition was added President Monroe's 
declaration, in his annual message to Congress, later called the 
Monroe Doctrine, that the United States would regard as un- 
friendly any attack on the independence of the South American 
states or any attempt to organize anew a system of colonies on 
the American continent. No more was heard of the scheme of 
the allies, and soon afterward Spain gave up the contest with 
her colonies. 

404. Revolt of the Greeks. — In April, 1821, after the Austrian 
troops had overthrown the revolutionary party in Naples and 
before France attempted to deal with the Spanish revolutionists, 
an insurrection broke out in Greece. At first Metternich and 
his friends thought this affair was like the other revolts. It 
was far different. The Greeks did not rise against a king who 
refused to grant them a share in the government ; they were 
struggling to free themselves from the hated race of Turks 
which overspread Greece, carrying the sense of oppression to 
every hearth. The Turks were taught by their religion that 
the Christian was an inferior, only fit to pay tribute. Had the 
Christian population of the Balkan Peninsula been of one race, 
the task of driving the Turk back toward his Asiatic home would 
not have been so difficult ; but the Slavs in the north distrusted 
the Greeks, because the Turks had often employed Greeks in 
the administration of their northern provinces, and these men 
had not hesitated to despoil the inhabitants for gain. The Slavic 
Rumanians and Bulgarians could not see that good would come 
to them by restoring the old Greek empire. This lack of union, 
then and many times since that day, enabled the Turk to keep 
fast his hold on Europe. The Greeks, made brutal by long- 
years of oppression, began their revolution by massacring all 
the Turks, men, women, and children, upon whom they could 
lay hands. The Turks meted out to the Greeks within their 
power the same measure of vengeance. Occasionally the gloomy 
scene of ferocity was lighted up by some deed of Homeric valor 
or by the heroic self-sacrifice of the Philhellenes, the " lovers 



396 REORGANIZED EUROPE 

of Hellas," who had come from western Europe to save the 
cause. The Russian people held the same faith as the Greeks, 
and therefore their indignation was kindled at the stories of 
Turkish cruelties, and they could not understand why the Tsar 
Alexander refused to send his armies to the rescue. Alexan- 
der, influenced though he was by Metternich, felt that the time 
had come to interfere, but before he could do anything he died, 
leaving the throne to his brother Nicholas. Nicholas had little 
liking for the Greeks, but he saw that England, under Canning's 
leadership, was sure to aid them, especially since Ibrahim, the 
son of the pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, had brought an army 
over to the Morea and was systematically ravaging it and kill- 
ing the inhabitants. In 1827 Russia and England reached an 
agreement which France also accepted. When they undertook 
to mediate between the sultan and the Greeks, the sultan con- 
temptuously rejected their offer. They therefore used force to 
stop the career of Ibrahim, and in the bay of Navarino utterly 
destroyed the Egyptian and Turkish fleet. War speedily broke 
out between the Russians and the Turks. The result was that 
Greece became an independent kingdom and that Rumania was 
left practically independent. 

405. A New Revolution in France. — France was again on 
the verge of revolution. The willingness of Charles X. to sub- 
ordinate the interests of the State to the Church had disgusted 
many even of the older nobles. A new chamber of deputies, 
with a liberal majority, had been chosen in 1827. Charles in- 
sisted upon his right to choose his ministers, irrespective of 
the wishes of the deputies. Among the opponents of the min- 
istry were two men already famous as historians, Guizot, 
author of a History of Civilization, and Thiers, whose popular 
History of the French Revolution had done much to unite the 
older revolutionists against the government. Another oppo- 
nent was General Lafayette, who, though a republican in senti- 
ment, was more anxious to secure liberty than to establish any 
particular form of government. Charles hoped to obtain a 
chamber of deputies more favorable to his ministers, but a new 



A NEW REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 



397 



election in 1830 only increased the strength of the opposition. 
Charles and his advisers saw no way ont of their difficulties 
save to change the laws without the consent of the legislature. 
July 26 he issued several ordinances which dissolved the 
newly elected chamber of deputies, ordered the election of 
another, with the qualifications for voting so changed that 
many merchants and manufac- 
turers lost the ballot, and, to 
stifle public opinion, declared 
that each newspaper must ob- 
tain a license every three 
months. After a day or two 
of uncertainty among the po- 
litical leaders, the workingmen 
and students and many of the 
middle class armed themselves, 
threw up barricades, and began 
to fight for the public buildings. 
The struggle was so fierce that 
five thousand persons were 
killed or wounded. From the 
heights of St. Cloud the king 
could see the tricolor, the flag 
of the Revolution and the em- 
pire, flying from the Hotel de 

Ville and Notre Dame. The windows of his palace were 
jarred by the constant firing. When it was too late he yielded. 
The duke of Orleans, son of the Philippe Egalite of the Ee vo- 
lution, was brought into Paris and made lieutenant-general of 
the kingdom. Lafayette reconciled the republicans to the plan 
of substituting the House of Orleans for the House of Bour- 
bon, and on August 7 Louis Philippe was proclaimed king. 
Meantime Charles X. was forced to retire to England. The 
government of the new king was much like that of the old, 
except that political power belonged to the rich instead of to 
the clergy and to the nobles. 




Lafayette in Later Life. 

After his return from imprisonment 
Lafayette took no active part in poli- 
tics for many years. He revisited 
America in 1824-1825. See also p. 329. 



398 REORGANIZED EUROPE 

406. A Kingdom of Belgium. — The Revolution of 1830 in 
France incited eager reformers all over Europe to overthrow 
tyrannical or badly managed governments. The Belgians had 
never ceased to dislike their union with the Dutch. This 
union became very unpopular after they discovered that the 
Dutch wanted to hold nearly all the offices and to have public 
business carried on in the Dutch language, although the Bel- 
gians were to pay half the taxes and half the debt. At first 
the opposition against the Dutch government was not danger- 
ous, because the Belgians were divided among themselves, one 
party wishing liberty of worship, liberty of speech, and liberty 
of the press, while the other argued that it was for the Church 
to tell the people what to believe, and that such liberties were 
the cause of almost all the evil in the world. By and by some 
churchmen who remembered that several times in France the 
Church had suffered from loss of liberty, began to argue in 
favor of such rights. The consequence was that the two par- 
ties joined in the Union of 1828. The outbreak in Paris 
stirred the more violent Belgians to an uprising in Brussels. 
After some fighting the revolutionary leaders declared the Bel- 
gian provinces independent, October 4, 1830. A congress was 
called, a constitution modelled on that of England was adopted, 
and Leopold of Coburg invited to become king. Although this 
was opposed by King William of Holland, and disliked by the 
governments of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the Belgians 
were supported by England and France, and William was 
obliged to yield. Thus was formed the kingdom of Belgium. 

407. Poland. — Poland was more unfortunate. The Tsar 
Alexander had tried to govern the Poles as a separate kingdom 
in accordance with the constitution he had given them, but he 
did not succeed, and began to rule like an arbitrary king. 
After his death, in 1825, the people became uneasy. In No- 
vember, 1830, Warsaw rose and drove out the Russians. 
Since none of the other governments either wished or dared to 
interfere, Poland was again conquered and was thenceforth 
treated simply as one of the provinces of Russia. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 399 

408. Reform of the English Parliament. — The success of 
the Revolution in France increased the outcry in England for 
the reform of parliament. The chief obstacle was the House 
of Lords, which refused to accept the plan adopted by the 
House of Commons. For a time there was danger of insur- 
rection, but the Lords yielded when the king threatened to 
raise enough men to the peerage to create a majorit}' in favor 
of the plan. According to this plan fifty-six boroughs lost 
their right to send members to parliament, while thirty others 
could send only one instead of two. The seats so vacated were 
granted to the counties or to large towns hitherto unrepre- 
sented. This reform did not bring about universal suffrage, 
for there was still a high property qualification for voters, but 
it weakened the control which wealthy landowners had pos- 
sessed over the House of Commons and prepared the way for 
the rise to power of the democracy. One of its first conse- 
quences was the abolition of slavery throughout the British 
colonies, each slave owner being paid what was regarded as a 
fair price for his slaves. A few years later, partly in conse- 
quence of the famine in Ireland, the Corn laws, or tariff on the 
importation of grain, were repealed. By this action the Eng- 
lish adopted the policy of free trade. 

409. Austria-Hungary. — In Italy there had been uprisings 
in the States of the Church, but the revolutionists were 
speedily put down with the aid of Austrian troops. A time 
would come when Austria would find the part of general 
policeman more difficult to play. Even the old Emperor Fran- 
cis realized that the Austrian governmental machine was weak. 
A spirit was stirring in Hungary and Bohemia, to say nothing 
of Italy and Germany, which would be fatal to it. The Hun- 
garians demanded that their ancient rights as a separate 
kingdom should become something more than a memory. 
Enthusiasts like the young Kossuth wished to separate Hun- 
gary from Austria, retaining the same monarch as the sole 
bond. Hungary had its own difficulties. Political power was 
in the hands of the great nobles. In the diets or assemblies 



400 REORGANIZED EUROPE 

the middle classes had no representatives. Many feudal bur- 
dens still rested upon the peasants. The organization of the 
country was worse than that of France before 1789. In certain 
parts of Hungary there was a large Slavic population of which 
the real Hungarians or Magyars were jealous, insisting that 
these peoples must become Magyar if they would enjoy the 
political importance the Hungarians claimed for themselves. 
In Bohemia the jealousy between Germans and Czechs was 
awakened. Austria was little better off. The discontent 
among liberal men everywhere in Europe showed that politi- 
cally the years after 1830 were only a breathing time between 
two revolutions. 

SUMMARY 

I. Agriculture, Industry, Trade. — 1. England: (a) advantages over 
rivals ; (6) changes in the laws of trade and labor. 2. Germany, 
growth of a common tariff system. 3. France : (a) introduction 
of factory system ; (&) new industries ; (c) railroad building. 
II. Attempts to check Revolution. — 1. Restoration in France: 
(a) attitude of the returned nobles ; (6) plan of the Artois party. 
2. Germany: (a) influence of Metternich; (6) question of parlia- 
ments ; (c) improvements in administration. 3. Action of the 
allies : («) object of alliance ; (ft) Holy Alliance ; (c) policy of 
allies in Spanish affair ; (d) origin of Monroe Doctrine ; (e) in- 
dependence of Spanish America. 
III. New Revolutions. — 1. The Greeks : (a) object of struggle ; (&) at- 
titude of western Europeans ; (c) armed intervention and its 
results. 2. France : (a) reasons for opposition to government ; 
(&) attempt of the king to change constitution ; (c) part played 
by Lafayette ; (d) character of the new government. 3. Belgian 
revolution, its causes and results. 4. Fate of Poland. 5. Reform 
in England. 6. Threatening situation in Austria- Hungary. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1815. Treaty of alliance of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England against 

revolution. 
1821. Revolt of the Greeks. 
1823. Intervention in Spain : Monroe Doctrine. 



SUMMARY 401 

1829. Catholic emancipation in England. 

1830, July. Overtnrow of Bourbons in France : the "July" revolution. 

Kingdom of Belgium established. 
1832. Reform of the English parliament. 

FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : histories of England by Gardiner, Green, Cheyne, 
Andrews, or Com an and Kendall ; of France by Duruy or Adams ; 
of Germany by Henderson ; of Austria by Whitman ; of Italy by 
Stillman, Probyn, or the Countess Cesaresco ; general histories of 
Europe, by Fyffe, Seignobos, Phillips, Muller, Rose, and Judson. 

Paragraphs : 

397. Trade : Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, 212 ff. ; 

reforms, Bright, III., 1401 ff. ; Colby, No. 113, 115. 

398. Organization of German Trade : Rand, Economic History since 

1763, 170-206. 

400. French Politics: Seignobos, 115-125; Charter of 1814, Ander- 

son, No. 93 ; Tr. and Pp., Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 2-8. 

401. Reaction in Germany: Henderson, II., 324-338; Metternich's 

views, 3Iemoirs, II., 129 ff., 179 ff. ; documents, Tr.and Pp., ibid., 
10-19 ; reaction in Italy, Thayer, I., 139-178. 

402. Holy Alliance : Seignobos, 748-759 ; including treaty of allies 

against France, Anderson, No. 100. 

403. Spain and her Colonies : Payne, European Colonies, Chs. 16 ff. ; 

Monroe Doctrine, Foster, American Diplomacy, Ch. 12 ; English 
view, Walpole, III., 58-68. 

404. The Greeks : especially Fyffe. Compare paragraphs on old Greek 

empire and on the Turks. 

405. Revolution in France: Fyffe, 603-619; or Seignobos, 125-132; 

documents, Anderson, No. 104 ; see Bourbon-Orleans genealogy 
below. 

408. Reform in England : Macy, Ch. 44 ; Colby, No. 116. 

409. Austria-Hungary : Seignobos, 401-412 ; or Whitman, Austria. 

Additional Reading : Andrews, Historical Development of 3Iodern 
Europe; Sears, Political Growth in the Nineteenth Century; 
Thayer, Daion of Italian Independence, 2 vols. ; Sybel, The 
Founding of the German Empire, 6 vols.; McCarthy, History of 
our own Times, 3 vols. ; Walpole, History of England, 6 vols. ; 
Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe, 2 vols. 



402 



REORGANIZED EUROPE 



Bourbon-Orleans Relationships 



Louis XIII., + 1743 



Louis XIV., + 1715 
I 



Louis XV., 1 1774 



Louis XVI., 
t 1793 

Louis XVII., 1 1795 
(did not reign) 



Louis XVIII. 
1814-1824 



Charles X., 
1S24-1830 

Duke of Berry, 1 1820 

Count of Chambord, 1 1883 



Philip, Duke of Orleans 

Philip, the Regent 
(1715-1722) 
I 
Louis 

Louis Philippe 

Louis Philippe (Egalite) 
(executed, 1793) 

Louis Philippe, 
K. 1830-1S48 

Ferdinand, 1 1842 

Count of Paris, 1 1894 

Duke of Orleans 
(Heir of both Houses) 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 

410. Revolution of 1848. — The Revolution of 1848 swept 
over Europe with greater rapidity than did the great Revo- 
lution of 1789. It also stirred more peoples. Instead of one 
nation enthusiastic for equality, half a dozen races were strug- 
gling to organize a national life, as well as to provide for civil 
equality and to remove the remains of ancient feudal burdens. 
Outside of France the success or failure of revolutionists 
depended upon Austria's ability to play again the part of 
general policeman. The darker the outlook for the Austrian 
monarchy at Vienna or at Prague or at Pesth, the greater the 
chance for a United Italy or a new German empire. When 
the imperial government recovered its hold upon its own 
provinces, the opportunity of Italian patriots and German 
liberals had passed away. 

411. The Demand for Reform. — Few men in 1847 imagined 
that Europe was on the verge of another revolution, although 
the cry for reform in Italy, France, Hungary, and Germany had 
grown insistent. The hopes of the Italians were steadily rising, 
for Pius IX., upon his election to the papacy the year before, 
had pardoned all political exiles from his States, had granted the 
press greater freedom, had allowed the organization of a citizen 
guard, and had formed a council which was to advise the cardi- 
nals in matters of government. His example had been followed 
by the grand duke of Tuscany and by the king of Sardinia. 
Charles Albert of Sardinia had long hoped to put himself at 
the head of the Italians and to drive the Austrians out of Italy. 

403 



404 THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 

He had sent word to a group of patriots that " when the time 
comes, my life, the life of my children, my army, my treasury, 
my all will be spent in the Italian cause." These men already 
looked to him as the director of the struggle for Italian inde- 
pendence. The pope, they thought, should be its patron. The 
pope's position was embarrassing, because the Austrians were 
faithful children of the Church of which he was the head. In 
France the liberals urged that the tax qualification for voters 
should be reduced from forty dollars to twenty dollars, and 
that certain classes of professional men should be permitted 
to vote even if they did not pay so high a tax. They also 
urged that officials should not be allowed to sit in parliament, 
because they were generally controlled by the government. 
To compel the ministry, at the head of which was the his- 
torian Guizot, to make these concessions, the reformers held 
banquets where their demands could be freely discussed. In 
Germany there was a desire to replace the existing confedera- 
tion with its powerless diet by a real union and a representative 
parliament. 

412. New Constitutions in Italy. — The first insurrection took 
place in Sicily in January, 1848. At various periods the Sicil- 
ian government had been separate from that of Naples. Dur- 
ing the Napoleonic wars the Neapolitan monarchy had taken 
refuge in Sicily under the protection of English guns. In 1812 
a constitution was granted, so that the Sicilians had an experi- 
ence of real self-government. It was to regain this constitution, 
which had been annulled in 1815, and a government separate 
from that of Naples, that they rose and captured Palermo. 
The king, alarmed by the insurrection, which threatened to 
involve Naples, granted a constitution, but took no account of 
the Sicilian demand for a separate parliament and adminis- 
tration. The system he introduced resembled the French 
government under Louis Philippe. Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 
could not afford to be outdone, and, early in March, granted 
the constitution which remained the fundamental law of the 
kingdom even after it annexed the other Italian states and 



FALL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE 



405 



became the kingdom of Italy. This constitution was also like 
the French constitution of 1830. 

413. Fall of Louis Philippe, February 24. — While Charles 
Albert was debating the terms of the constitution, there was 
an explosion in Paris, the echoes of which started revolutions 
in Vienna, in south Germany, and in Berlin. It grew out of 
an attempt to hold a great 
" reform " banquet. The 
Guizot ministry finally for- 
bade this, but the excited 
crowds cried " Down with 
Guizot," and began to bar- 
ricade the streets. When 
Louis Philippe found that 
his ministry was unpopu- 
lar, even with the national 
guards, chosen from those 
prosperous families whose 
interests he had always fa- 
vored, he reluctantly asked 
Guizot to resign. On that 
evening, February 23, a band 
of agitators gathered in front 
of Guizot's office. Some one 
fired a shot at the soldiers 
on guard, and they replied 
with a volley, killing several 
of the mob. The leaders 
placed the dead bodies in carts and carried them through the 
workmen's quarters, declaring that the government was shoot- 
ing down the people. During the night the people took arms 
and covered the streets in the eastern parts of the city with bar- 
ricades. The king did not wish to provoke civil war and abdi- 
cated in favor of his grandson, the young count of Paris. An 
attempt to proclaim the count of Paris king failed, and France 
was once more a republic. Many of the workingmen who had 




F. P. G. Guizot, 1787-1874. 

Appointed professor of history in 
Paris in 1812. Entered the service 
of the government under Louis 
XVIII. in 1811. Chief minister of 
Louis Philippe, virtually from 1840. 



406 THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 

helped overthrow the monarchy were determined that this time 
the middle classes should not gain the whole advantage, as in 
1830. They compelled the new government to recognize the 
right of every Frenchman to work and to promise the estab- 
lishment of national workshops. They believed that the people 
should manage their industrial affairs as w^ell as their govern- 
ment. Such ideas made many persons afraid that private 
property would be seized. 

414. Hungary. — The news from Paris stirred the reformers 
in Germany, Austria, and Hungary, not because they desired a 
republic but because they saw in the victory of the Parisians 
the triumph of reform over an obstinate ministry. In South 
Germany reform ministries were forced upon several rulers and 
many petty tyrannies swept away. The Hungarians, although 
the revolutionary party under Kossuth was eager to have 
their country treated as a separate kingdom, remembered that 
the liberals in all parts of the empire must stand or fall to- 
gether. Kossuth declared that the future of Hungary never 
would be secure while in the other provinces there existed " a 
system of government in direct antagonism to every constitu- 
tional principle." He did not see that though the peoples within 
the empire wished for political liberty each was unwilling to 
be governed by any of its rivals. As a Magyar or Hungarian, 
he felt this national sentiment, but he did not sympathize with 
it in the Croat or the Serb. March 13, a tumult in Vienna 
drove Metternich into exile, and the emperor was compelled to 
promise a constitution for Austria and separate governments 
for Hungary and Bohemia. At the same time he appointed 
as governor of Croatia Colonel Jellacic, who sympathized with 
the Croatians in their desire to become independent of Hun- 
gary. 

415. Revolution in Prussia. — From the beginning of March 
the people of Berlin had been clamoring for a constitutional 
government. The year before, King Frederick William IV. 
had called together in a united diet all the provincial diets, 
but this did not satisfy those who insisted that the promises 



NATIONAL JEALOUSIES 407 

made in 1813 should be fulfilled. After the news of the over- 
throw of Metternich, the king could resist no longer and on 
March 18 promised a written constitution and other reforms. 
The people excitedly gathered in the castle square to acclaim 
him. When the crowd became too noisy, the soldiers attempted 
to restore order. In the confusion two shots were fired. The 
people cried out that they were betrayed and began to barri- 
cade the streets. A battle ensued. The troops were gaining 
the upper hand when the king recalled them. They withdrew 
from the city, leaving it in control of the mob. The king not 
only promised that a representative assembly should meet in 
May, but he seemed ready to place himself at the head of those 
who were struggling for a united Germany. He rode through 
the city preceded by the old German banner of "black, red, 
and gold," and declared that " Prussia henceforth is merged in 
Germany." 

416. Austria Attacked in Italy. — The news from Vienna 
excited Milan even more than it did Berlin. The people, after 
hard fighting, drove the Austrian general Eadetzky out of Milan. 
Venice followed this example and took the name Republic of 
St. Mark. Apparently the time had come to which Charles 
Albert had referred in his letter to the Italian leaders, and he 
declared war against Austria, intending to drive her out of 
Italy. Neither the pope nor the king of Naples could resist 
the new national enthusiasm and they sent their troops north- 
ward toward the plains of Lombardy and Venice. General 
Radetzky took refuge in the famous quadrilateral, covered by 
four fortified cities and by the rivers Mincio and Adige. The 
spring and summer of 1848 offered the enemies of Austria their 
great opportunity. 

417. National Jealousies. — From the beginning there were 
ominous signs that Austria's resource was to be the jealousies 
of her foes. Among the troops fighting against the liberties 
of the Italians were regiments of Croats, which were urged by 
Governor Jellacic to be faithful to the Austrian emperor who 
alone could free Croatia from the tyranny of the Hungarians. 



408 THE REVOLUTION OF I848 

Charles Albert could not count upon real help from either the 
pope or the king of Naples. The pope was anxious not to 
give offence to the Austrian s, who had long been faithful sup- 
porters of the papacy. The king of Naples needed his army at 
home, for the Sicilians refused to accept the constitution which 
he had granted. Early in May they formally deposed him as 
king and announced that after the reorganization of their govern- 
ment they would select some other Italian prince as monarch. 
They were considered traitors not merely by the king but by 
all Neapolitans who wished to preserve the unity of the king- 
dom. Similar obstacles hindered the plan to reorganize Ger- 
many. A National parliament was chosen to meet at Frankfort. 
Bohemia was asked to send deputies, because she had been a 
state of the old empire. The Bohemian Czechs or Slavs 
refused, fearing that they would be submerged in a sea of 
Germans. They also showed their antagonism by arranging 
for a Slav congress at Prague. Germany had another enemy 
in Denmark, where the wave of national feeling brought about 
an attempt to incorporate within the Danish kingdom the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, over which the Danish 
king reigned as duke. Holstein was a member of the Con- 
federation and it, as well as the southern part of Schleswig, 
was inhabited by Germans. Danish patriotism and German 
patriotism came into conflict and led to fighting. It was in 
Hungary, however, that violent race hatreds gave the imperial 
government its best opportunity. The Slovacs in the north- 
east, the Rumans in Transylvania, the Serbs, Slovenians, and 
the Croats in the south, protested against being absorbed by 
the Hungarians, while the Hungarians were equally deter- 
mined to rule these formerly docile peoples. Jellacic only 
waited for permission to invade Hungary, and the Serbs were 
already fighting the Hungarian troops. If the Austrian army 
and the advisers of the emperor could once recover from the 
panic into which the riots in Vienna had thrown them, these 
national and race jealousies would render easy the reconquest 
of the lost supremacy. 



THE REACTION 409 

418. The Reaction. — As the earliest revolution had taken 
place in the kingdom of Naples, so the reaction began there. 
On the fifteenth of May, three days before the German National 
parliament met, in a riot brought about by a controversy between 
the king and his new chamber of deputies, his troops were vic- 
torious. The assembly was dissolved and another election 
ordered. The king ordered the Neapolitan army which had 
been sent northward, ostensibly against the Austrians, to return 
to Naples. A month later there were riots in Prague. They 
were suppressed so thoroughly by the Austrian general Win- 
dischgratz that the promise to grant the Bohemians a separate 
assembly was ignored, and they were required to elect repre- 
sentatives for the Austrian parliament. At the same time a 
struggle was fought out in Paris which frightened all the men 
of property in Europe. It had been impossible to establish 
the promised national workshops in the midst of political tur- 
moil and the consequent stagnation in business, and the gov- 
ernment set every one who applied for work to digging in the 
Champ de Mars. This army of workmen soon numbered over 
one hundred thousand. As they were organized and drilled in 
order to control them more effectively, they were a menace to 
the peace of the city. The new National assembly, chosen 
to draw up a constitution for France, resolved to disband this 
army and to provide relief for the unemployed in some other 
way. The workmen, believing themselves face to face with 
starvation, resolved not to yield without a struggle. For four 
days, from June 23 to June 26, Paris was turned into a battle- 
field. Troops were brought on the railroad from distant parts 
of France, and the insurrection was crushed. The news that 
Paris had barely escaped falling into the hands of a mob sent 
a thrill of fear through Europe. The result was that the aristoc- 
racy and the middle classes drew back from revolutionary 
plans. In July came another blow. Charles Albert of Sardinia 
was defeated, forced to abandon Lombardy, and early in August 
to sign a truce. This freed the Austrian army for use against 
the revolutionists. Shortly ' afterward the Austrian parlia- 



410 THE REVOLUTION OF I848 

merit abolished feudalism, providing that all rights over land 
should be redeemed, while rights over persons were annulled 
without any payment. This satisfied the peasants and they 
took little further interest in the political struggle. By this 
time Jellacic had begun to invade Hungary, which the Austrian 
government declared to be in a state of siege. New disorders 
in Vienna compelled the emperor to flee to Moravia. General 
Windischgratz marched southward to capture Vienna. The 
Hungarians sent an army to its relief, but were defeated. 
October 31, the city was taken by storm. The triumph of the 
government was made more sure by the abdication, December 2, 
of the sickly Emperor Ferdinand, who was succeeded by his 
nephew Francis Joseph. 

419. The German Parliament. — Between May 18 and 
October 31 the German National parliament at Frankfort 
accomplished scarcely anything, although among its members 
were many of the ablest men in Germany. Since it had been 
chosen directly by the people, it was watched uneasily by 
princes, who were ready to take advantage of its blunders in 
order to recover control lost in the March uprisings. Although 
it was important to do at once whatever was necessary to 
create a strong Germany, united under an effective federal 
government, it was five weeks before the deputies began to dis- 
cuss the constitution, and then they took up first the " rights 
of man," as the French did in 1789. These they discussed 
for four months. Their attempt to direct the settlement with 
Denmark over the Schleswig-Holstein troubles was a failure, 
all the worse because some of them used it as an excuse 
to start a vain insurrection in southern Germany. Mean- 
while matters had been going from bad to worse in Prussia. 
When the new Prussian assembly met in May, its leaders saw 
that they could not count upon' the fickle Frederick William, 
and found that the Berlin populace, like the Parisians in 1789, 
was ready to insult or threaten the deputies unless they voted 
revolutionary measures. The nobles, and among them Bis- 
marck, rallied to the defence of their privileges. The king 



AUSTRIAN SUCCESSES 411 

only waited for a chance to be rid of the assembly altogether. 
His opportunity came when the Austrian government had 
recaptured Vienna. Two days later, November 2, he appointed 
a new ministry, which summoned the assembly to meet at 
Brandenburg, where it could no longer be supported or con- 
trolled by the Berliners, and then he dissolved the assembly, 
announcing that he would proclaim a constitution. After the 
royal power had been restored at Vienna and at Berlin the 
Frankfort parliament undertook to settle the serious question 
whether the new federation was to include the whole Austrian 
empire or only the German parts. If all the empire were 
included, the confederation would be continually involved in 
disputes with which Germany was not concerned, but which 
the Austrian empire must consider because of its Polish, or 
Servian, or Croatian population. After a long controversy, 
parliament decided to admit only the German portions of the 
Austrian dominions. This was regarded by the Austrians as 
a blow at the unity of their states. The attempt of the 
Hungarians to save Vienna from capture by the imperial 
troops had led to an invasion of Hungary and the occupation 
of Pesth. Early in March a proclamation was issued by the 
Emperor Francis Joseph which bestowed a single constitution 
upon all parts of his dominions. To this challenge the German 
parliament replied, March 28, by choosing as emperor Fred- 
erick William IV. of Prussia. But Frederick William was 
disgusted with the revolutionists and declared he wished no 
crown picked out of the gutter, like that which Louis Philippe 
had accepted in 1830. Such a refusal doomed the whole 
project of the parliament, which was soon afterward broken 
up. 

420. Austrian Successes. — Had Frederick William accepted 
the crown it would have meant war with Austria. March 23, 
only five days before the Frankfort parliament elected him, 
the Austrians had gained a final victory over Charles Albert 
of Sardinia at Novara. Since the truce made in August, the 
questions of government in Italy had been farther than ever 



412 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 



from settlement. The pope and the grand duke of Tuscany 
had fled from their capitals, and republics had been organized 
at Rome and at Florence under the influence of Mazzini. 
Charles Albert saw that in renewed war with Austria lay his 
only hope of retaining the support of his own people and the 
confidence of liberal Italians. The campaign lasted less than 
a week and ended in disaster. Knowing that so long as he 
remained king the Austrians would not grant his country a 

reasonable peace, he abdicated in 
favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel. 
Even after this victory Austria's 
hands were not altogether free. 
The Hungarians would not accept 
the constitution, and the more 
revolutionary of them, under Kos- 
suth, attempted to depose Francis 
Joseph and to prepare the way for 
a republic. In Italy the Tuscan 
and Roman republics were yet to 
be dealt with. An Austrian army 
restored the grand duke of Tus- 
cany in May and would have pro- 
ceeded to restore Pius IX. had the 
French not interfered, France 
was nominally a republic with 
Louis Napoleon, nephew of the great emperor, as president, 
but her political leaders in 1849 had lost all real sympathy 
with republican government. Moreover, they were unwilling 
that Austria should again control the affairs of central Italy. 
Some of them thought the new Roman republic would accept 
France as mediator and that the pope could be restored peace- 
fully. Mazzini and his supporters scouted the idea of making 
terms with Pope Pius or allowing the French army to enter 
Rome. It was only after a siege that the city was taken in 
July and the papal government reestablished. Meanwhile the 
Austrians had been struggling to put down the Hungarian 




Kossuth. 

Lajos (Louis) Kossuth, born 
in Hungary, 1802; died in 
Italy, 1894. Much of his 
later life spent in exile. 



A SECOND EMPIRE IN FRANCE 413 

insurrection. They succeeded in doing this in August through 
the assistance of a large Russian army which the Tsar Nicholas 
was glad to send, because he regarded himself as the special 
enemy of revolutionists everywhere. Shortly after this Venice 
was obliged to surrender. The king of Naples had already 
recovered Sicily and the German question was the only one 
still unsettled. Austria did not intend that its settlement 
should be left to Prussia. 

421. Triumph of Austria. — A month after he had declined 
the imperial crown, Frederick William called a conference at 
Berlin in order that the governments might attempt what the 
representatives of the people had failed to accomplish. Al- 
though Austria sent a delegate to the conference, he withdrew 
almost at once. Bavaria did the same ; and Saxony and 
Hanover consented to form a league with Prussia principally 
to gain time until Austria should have put down the Hunga- 
rians and captured Venice. Since Prussia proposed a federal 
constitution which pleased many of the members of the recent 
Frankfort parliament, they urged their own governments to 
join in forming a Union parliament. This parliament met in 
March, 1850, in spite of the opposition of Austria, under whose 
influence the old diet of the Confederation had resumed its 
sittings at Frankfort as if there had been no revolution. In- 
fluenced by the tsar and threatened by Austria, Prussia was 
obliged to abandon the Union and to recognize the diet. The 
Austrians had resolved to " first cheapen and then destroy " 
their rival. The memory of this time of bitter humiliation, 
called the Humiliation of Olmutz, because it was at Olmutz, in 
November, 1850, that the final agreement was made, remained 
with the Prussians until the day of vengeance came. Hardly 
a remnant endured of the work of the revolution in Germany 
or in Austria. A few of the good laws equalizing taxation and 
removing feudal burdens had not been swept away in the turn 
of the tide. 

422. A Second Empire in France. — France also was drifting 
back toward strong government, not through the restoration 



414 



THE EEVOLUTION OF 1848 



of the monarchy but through the establishment of a second 
empire. The constitution of 1848 provided for a president 
chosen by the people and for a legislative assembly. Since the 
president would be at the head of the army and could appoint 
all government officers, including prefects of the departments, 

he was much stronger than the 
legislature, which could simply 
make the laws. One of the 
candidates for the presidency 
was Louis Napoleon, a nephew 
of Napoleon I. By this time 
the disasters of the first em- 
pire had been forgotten and 
only its glorious memories re- 
mained. The name Napoleon 
was a household word in even 
the most obscure village. It 
is not surprising that Louis 
Napoleon received nearly three 
times as many votes as all 
the other candidates taken to- 
gether. The legislative as- 
sembly chosen in 1849 was 
composed chiefly of men who 
desired to see either the grand- 
son of Charles X. or the grand- 
son of Louis Philippe on the 
throne. The republican depu- 
ties could defend the constitution only by taking advantage 
of the disputes between the monarchists. Gradually Presi- 
dent Napoleon began to insist that he was more directly the 
representative of the people than the assembly, because his 
majority had been so large. He gathered a party about him 
and planned to extend his period of office, which, according to 
the constitution, was limited to one term. The assembly lost 
its popularity with the poorer people by passing a law which 




Napoleon III. 

Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 
son of Louis Bonaparte, king of Hol- 
land, and Hortense de Beauharnais, 
who was the daughter of Josephine. 
Born at Paris, 1808. Took part in 
an Italian insurrection in 1831. Later 
made two unsuccessful attempts to 
overthrow Louis Philippe. After 
the ruin of the empire he lived in 
England, where he died in 1873. 



ENGLISH DIFFICULTIES 415 

took the ballot away from three millions of them. It also made 
a law upon education which gave the clergy more control over 
the schools than they had had even under Charles X. There 
were many who felt that the easiest way out of the difficulty 
was to amend the constitution so thaf Napoleon could be re- 
elected, but the monarchists prevented this. Although rumors 
were heard that Napoleon would seize power, the republicans 
were so afraid of the monarchists that they joined his friends 
in refusing to permit the assembly to call upon the army for 
protection. Napoleon saw that his opportunity had come. 
December 2, 1851, the anniversary of Austerlitz, he ordered 
the arrest of many prominent men, dismissed the assembly, 
restored universal suffrage, and asked the people to accept or 
reject a new constitution much like that of 1800. The vote 
showed that the people were on his side, for over seven millions 
voted for him and only six hundred thousand against his 
project. A year later a still larger popular vote restored the 
empire and gave him the title Napoleon III. From the Revo- 
lution of 1848 France had preserved only universal suffrage, of 
which she had made so strange a use. 

423. English Difficulties. — England was the only one of the 
great European countries that passed through the period of 
1848 without dangerous upheavals. Nevertheless she had her 
troubles. Many of the poorer people had been dissatisfied 
that the reform of 1832 had not brought them relief from their 
miseries. They demanded a charter providing for universal 
suffrage, annual parliaments, and the payment of members, so 
that poor men could afford to represent their districts. In 
April, 1848, they proposed to march upon Westminster bearing 
a monster petition. Troops were called out and two hundred 
thousand special constables were enrolled. The " Chartists," 
as the agitators were nicknamed, were intimidated by this dis- 
play of force and sent the petition to parliament in three cabs. 
There was more serious trouble in Ireland, which had suffered 
terribly from famine in 1845 and 1846. The repeal of the im- 
port duties on grain did not immediately bring relief. After 



416 THE BEVOLUTION OF 1848 

the famine was ended, the landlords began to evict their poorer 
tenants in order that better methods of cultivation might be 
introduced. Thousands were put out on the roadsides. During 
these years the great stream of Irish emigration toward the 
United States began. 'English industry and trade grew rap- 
idly, chiefly through the building of railroads and the opening 
of steamship lines. Men boasted that a new era was dawning 
in which freedom of trade was to make war impossible. To 
celebrate this industrial and commercial progress an inter- 
national exhibition was organized in the Crystal Palace in 
London in 1851. Unhappily the hopes for peace were destined 
soon to be disappointed by a new series of terrible wars. 



SUMMARY 

I. Reform or Revolution. — 1. Particular changes desired in France, 
Italy, and Germany. 2. New constitutions in Italy. 3. France : 

(a) accidental character of the February revolution ; (b) de- 
mands of the Revolutionists. 4. Austria-Hungary : (a) national 
ambitions of the Hungarians ; (6) overthrow of Metternich. 5. 
Germany : (a) liberal ministries established ; (b) uprising of the 
Berliners ; (c) attitude of Prussian king toward German national 
movement. 

II. Austria on the Defensive. — 1. In Italy. 2. Her resources, 
national jealousies : (a) Croats and Serbs vs. Hungarians ; 
(&) Sicilians vs. Neapolitans ; (c) Slavs vs. Germans ; (d) Danes 
vs. Germans. 3. Revolution loses its allies : (a) in Naples ; 

(b) in Paris. 4. Austria regains control in Bohemia and 
Vienna. 

III. Revolution on the Defensive. — 1. Failure of the Frankfort 
parliament. 2. Prussian assembly dissolved. 3. Frederick Will- 
iam declines the imperial crown. 4. Defeat of Charles Albert. 5. 
Suppression of Roman and Tuscan republics. 6. Defeat of Hun- 
garian rebellion. 7. Humiliation of Prussia : (a) plan of the 
king ; (&) policy of the smaller states ; (c) Prussia compelled to 
abandon the "Union." 8. France: (a) the republicans in the 
minority ; (6) policy of President Napoleon ; (c) means by which 
he became master of France. 9. Situation in England. 



1849, 



SUMMARY 417 



DATES CLOSELY CONNECTED 

1848, January. Insurrection in Sicily. 

February 24. Overthrow of Louis Philippe: the "February" 

R evolution. 
March 13. Metternich driven from power in Vienna. 
March 18. Uprisings in Milan and Berlin (connect Sardinia, de- 
clares war on Austria). 
{May 15. Suppression of insurrection in Naples. 
June 17. Suppression of insurrection in Prague. 
June 23-26. Great battle in Paris, 
f October 31. Capture of Vienna. 
^ November 2. Prussian assembly prorogued. 

1 March 4. Union of Francis Joseph's dominions decreed. 
March 23. Defeat of Charles Albert at Novara. 
March 28. Frederick William IV. offered imperial crown of Ger- 
many. 
1852. Reestablishment of the French Empire. 



FURTHER STUDY 

Paragraphs : — 

General Reading : see chapter 25, and especially, for France, Seignobos 
or Duruy ; for Germany, Henderson ; for Austria, Whitman ; for 
Hungary, Vambe'ry ; for Italy, Cesaresco, Probyn, orStillman ; for 
Russia, Skrine ; Headlamps Bismarck. 

411. Italy : for history of Italy since the Renaissance, see paragraphs 

188, 200, 206, 246, 290, 295, 299 ; agitation in Italy, Probyn, 
71 ff. ; in France, Seignobos, 145 ff. 

412. Constitution of Sardinia, see Lowell, Governments and Parties, 

I. 148 ff. 

413. Revolution of 1848 in France : Anderson, Nos. 107-109 ; Seigno- 

bos, 155-162; or Fyffe, 699-706; Tocqueville's Recollections; 
Senior. 

414. Austria-Hungary : Phillips, 274-279. 

415. March Days in Berlin : Henderson, II., 348-352 ; Sybel, I., 145- 

160. Bismarck's experiences, Autobiography, I., 22-34. 
416-418. Revolution or Reaction : the situation in northern and 
southern Italy, in Germany and Hungary and Bohemia may be 
studied in detail separately and afterwards put together as in the 
text to illustrate the theme ; for this purpose Fyffe, Seignobos, or 
Phillips are useful, or the histories of separate countries. The 



418 THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 

Paragraphs : — 

task will be rendered easier by a chronological table with parallel 

columns presenting to the eye the relations in time between the 

different series of events. 
419-421. Reaction in Germany: Henderson, II., 358-360; Bismarck, 

Autobiography, I., 54 ff. 

422. Empire in France : Seignobos, 168 ff. ; Anderson, No. 111. 

423. The Chartists : Lee, Nos. 221-224 ; Kendall, Nos. 134-137. 

Additional Reading : Bismarck's Autobiography, the Man and the 
Statesman, Reflections and Reminiscences ; Tocqueville's Rec- 
ollections; Senior, Conversations with Thiers and Guizot, 2 vols. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 

424. Crimean and Italian Wars. — Trade between European 
states became freer for a time, as the English followers of Cob- 
den and Bright had prophesied, but national rivalries did not 
come to an end. In the period from 1852 to 1863 there were 
two great conflicts : the Crimean war, which arose out of jeal- 
ousies over the settlement of difficulties within the Turkish 
empire, and the Italian war, caused by the desire of the Ital- 
ians to unite under the rule of Victor Emmanuel, king of Sar- 
dinia, and to drive the Austrians out of Italy. In both these 
wars the newly chosen Emperor Napoleon was the most influ- 
ential personage. Before the period was over he was involved 
in difficulties which were to cripple him in the contest with 
Prussia in the years that followed. The decade between 1852 
and 1862 was for Prussia one of quiet preparation. 

425. Industry and Trade. — The first effect of the restora- 
tion of order, after the Revolution of 1848, was the revival of 
industry and trade. England was still far in the lead. Her 
railway system was practically completed before 1848. She 
had introduced the electric telegraph and the penny post. 
From 1845 to 1849 she had destroyed her system of protective 
tariffs and navigation laws, and opened her ports to the prod- 
ucts and the shipping of all nations. In France a railway 
system had been projected during the monarchy of Louis 
Philippe, but the work of construction was broken off by the 
financial troubles of 1847, and by the revolution of the follow- 
ing year. During the republic something had been done to 
complete the scheme, but it was only after the empire was 

419 



420 A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 

established that this work was pushed forward successfully. 
The roads were given franchises for ninety-nine years, and the 
government encouraged the formation of a few large compa- 
nies, so that the service should be more economical. In conse- 
quence the cost of freight was reduced by one-half, and each 
community marketed its products to greater advantage. Prices 
in different parts of France became more uniform, and varied 
little from summer to winter. The working population moved 
about more freely. This led to a reorganization of industry, 
with a more careful division of labor. While such efforts 
were being made to increase trade, Napoleon and some of 
his advisers thought it inconsistent to leave unchanged the 
old tariff laws which forbade the importation of various prod- 
ucts and placed high import duties upon all. Accordingly 
he reduced several of the rates by imperial decree, and in 1860 
made a treaty with England providing for import duties on 
English goods not to exceed twenty-five per cent ad valorem. 
Shortly afterward the old colonial system, by which France 
insisted upon the monopoly of trade with her colonies, was also 
abandoned. Many French manufacturers cried out that they 
were ruined ; nevertheless these changes were followed by a 
new period of industrial success. 

426. The Kingdom of Sardinia. — The kingdom of Sardinia 
had been crushed in its war with Austria, but King Victor 
Emmanuel and his ministers set resolutely at work reorganiz- 
ing its resources. The king refused Austria's offer to make 
the terms of peace less burdensome on condition that he would 
repudiate the constitution. The work of reorganization was 
intrusted chiefly to Count Cavour, the statesman who was to 
be the founder of a unified Italy. Railroads were constructed, 
fortifications were strengthened, and ships were added to the 
fleet. Monasteries were closed and their lands were sold to 
the farmers. The money was used to pay the salaries of the 
parish clergy. In this Victor Emmanuel was wiser and more 
honest than Henry VIII. of England, or the French in the 
days of the Revolution. Such interference with the privileges. 



THE PRUSSIAN CUSTOMS UNION 



421 



of the Church was sure to be condemned by the pope and by 
many of the clergy, especially as the government during the 
same period deprived them of their right to special courts. 
Victor Emmanuel did not wish to imitate the other rulers of 
Europe by turning his back upon representative government, 
but he did not scruple to 
win Napoleon's good will by 
promptly recognizing his title 
as emperor. Napoleon re- 
marked to the Sardinian am- 
bassador, "A day will come 
when the two countries will 
find themselves companions 
in arms for the noble cause 
of Italy." 

427. The Prussian Customs 
Union. — Liberal men were 
disheartened at the outlook 
in Germany. Many of them 
emigrated to America. The 
Prussian constitution which 
Erederick William IV. had 
granted gave to the assembly 
little more than the right to 
be consulted. Taxes could 

be collected from year to year without its consent. It became 
customary to spend the money and afterward to submit the 
budget of expenditure to the assembly for approval. The 
Austrian s were not content with the victory gained over 
Prussia in 1850 and meant to share her influence over trade 
through the customs union or to form a new customs union 
especially with the south German states. Prussia was deter- 
mined not to yield in this as she had yielded in the struggle 
to reorganize the confederation. She worked to reorganize 
the old union on the basis of lower tariffs, with the intention 
that the union should, after reorganization, make a commercial 




Victor Emmanuel II. 

Born at Turin, 1820; died at Rome, 
1878. . Became King of Sardinia 
upon the abdication of Charles 
Albert immediately after the 
battle of No vara, March 23, 1849. 



422 A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 

treaty with Austria. Public opinion in Germany was with 
Prussia, believing that its industrial interests would be pro- 
moted by renewing the union rather than by joining Austria 
and by accepting Austria's plan of increasing the tariff rates 
upon all products imported into either Austria or Germany. 
Austria was unable finally to prevent the union from being 
renewed in 1853 for twelve years. 

428. The Turkish Empire. — In 1853 the attention of Europe 
was turned toward Turkey. The loss of Greece had not been 
the last of the sultan's troubles. The other Christian peoples 
of the Balkan peninsula wished also to throw off his rule. 
Servia was practically independent. In Bosnia and Herze- 
govina the population was restless. The Bulgarians, too, re- 
called their ancient glories. The Rumanians of Moldavia and 
Wallachia governed themselves under chosen hospodars and 
were less eager for freedom from the nominal rule of the sul- 
tan than from the dangerous protectorate that Russia had ac- 
quired over them. They wished to unite into a kingdom the 
two principalities and possibly the Rumanian part of Tran- 
sylvania. Fired by the news of 1848 from western Europe, they 
attempted a peaceful revolution. The sultan was apparently 
ready to grant a greater measure of local self-government and 
many of the liberties which men were fighting for in Germany 
and Italy, but the Tsar Nicholas interfered and compelled him 
to take away privileges that the principalities had long pos- 
sessed. A still greater danger had threatened the sultan. The 
viceroy of Egypt, Meheniet Ali, undertook to seize Syria in 1832, 
and perhaps to supplant the sultan at Constantinople. Russia 
offered her protection, but in a way which would make a Russian 
dependency of the Turkish empire and a Russian outpost of the 
Dardanelles. Western Europe looked on uneasily, and a few 
years later interposed, in order to substitute itself for Russia 
as the guardian of Turkey. Merchant vessels of all nations 
were thenceforth to pass freely through the straits, which 
were to be closed to war vessels, except when the sultan was 
at war. 



THE CAUSES OF THE CRIMEAN WAR 423 

429, The Causes of the Crimean War. — In 1853 the Tsar 
Nicholas had become convinced that the Turkish empire must 
soon disappear. He said to the English ambassador at St. 
Petersburg : " We have on our hands a sick man — a very sick 
man; it will be a great misfortune, if one of these days he 
should slip away from us, especially before all necessary ar- 
rangements were made." When the fated day should arrive 
England might take Egypt and Crete, but he would not allow 
either England or France to occupy Constantinople. He could 
not promise not to occupy it himself, but he was ready to agree 
not to remain there. He felt that if Russia and England were 
agreed it was of small consequence what the other governments 
wished. But the English were reluctant to see Russian influ- 
ence pushing steadily southward, endangering their own power 
in the eastern Mediterranean and threatening the overland routes 
to India. At this juncture a controversy arose between France 
and Russia over the rights of Catholic and Greek priests to 
guard the holy places in Palestine. The Emperor Napoleon 
was determined to pose as the protector of Latin Christianity, 
while the Tsar Nicholas w r as equally determined not to suffer 
the Greeks to be thrust into the background. The tsar sent a 
special embassy to Constantinople to insist not only upon these 
Greek privileges but to demand for himself the guardianship 
of the Greek Christians throughout the Turkish empire. If 
the sultan had granted this, Russia would have had opportuni- 
ties to interfere constantly in Turkish affairs. Through the 
efforts of the English ambassador in Constantinople the ques- 
tion of the holy places was amicably settled, while the sul- 
tan was emboldened to reject the more dangerous demands of 
Russia. The Russian ambassador left Constantinople in May 
threatening vengeance. War could still have been prevented 
had Napoleon and England not repeatedly acted in such fashion 
as to make it difficult for the tsar to yield and had they waited 
for Austrian cooperation. Austria's situation made her the 
natural antagonist of Russian influence in the Balkan peninsula. 
Napoleon counted on this to break the friendship between Aus- 



424 A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 

tria and Russia, but lie wished Austria to gain no new allies by 
openly joining in the conflict with the tsar, for he saw that it 
would be far easier to force a friendless power out of Italy, and 
he thought that a war between the Sardinians and the Austrians 
would soon be brought on. The English did not see through 
this scheme and did not insist upon the help of Austria. The 
result was war, in October, between Turkey and Russia, and a 
little later, in March, 1854, between Russia and the two allies, 
France and England. 

430. The Crimean War. — This war is named from the Cri- 
mea, where the French and the English finally attacked the 
Russians, thinking that it would be difficult for the Russians 
to forward troops across the plains of southern Russia. The 
allies also wished to destroy the naval arsenal of Sebastopol. 
After the siege began it was the allies rather than the Russians 
that were in the most danger. At Balaclava and again at Inker- 
man the Russians nearly succeeded in breaking the southern 
siege lines. No attempt could be made to prevent Russian rein- 
forcements from entering the city by the northern roads. The 
siege dragged on through the terrible winter of 1854. The 
English were unable adequately to care for their soldiers or even 
to feed them. At one time out of twenty-four thousand men 
thirteen thousand were in the hospital. The Russians had 
more men in the fortress than the allies had in the trenches 
outside. In the spring new English and French armies were 
sent to the Crimea, and Victor Emmanuel despatched a body 
of Italian troops, partly in order that the kingdom of Sardinia 
might be counted among the greater states, but chiefly that he 
might win the gratitude of Napoleon and gain in him an ally 
for the inevitable struggle with Austria. After one or two vain 
attempts to storm the Russian lines, the French army succeeded, 
September 8, 1855, in taking the Malakof fort which commanded 
the entire position. The Russians blew up their works and 
retired from the burning city. During the winter the Tsar 
Nicholas had died and his son Alexander saw that the time had 
come to make peace. Napoleon was also willing to make peace, 



POLICY OF CAVOUR 425 

although in England the war spirit was still strong. To arrange 
the terms, a congress of diplomats met at Paris, where the treaty 
was signed in 1856. Its terms marked little change except 
that Russia was no longer to maintain a fleet or to build arse- 
nals on the Black Sea. Upon the promise of the sultan to 
better the condition of his Christian subjects the powers all 
agreed to treat him as an independent sovereign whose govern- 
ment concerned himself alone. This was disastrous to the 
Christian peoples of the Balkans, but the powers were anxious 
to keep any one of their number from gaining control over the 
" sick man." 

431. Revolt in India, 1857-1858. — In the following year 
England's Indian possessions were seriously threatened by 
an insurrection of the native troops called sepoys. So rapid 
had been the extension of British control, not only in India 
but also in Burmah, that the natives became alarmed. Often 
their rights were rudely brushed aside in the interest of what 
the British thought was better administration. The English 
garrison had been diminished by the despatch of regiments to 
the Crimea. The result was that the sepoys began to despise 
their masters and to plot the restoration of the Mughal empire 
at Delhi, and of the states which were formerly its vassals. 
Reports were circulated among the troops that the English 
intended to force them to become Christians, and to this end 
planned first to defile them by compelling them to use car- 
tridges greased with the fat of cows or pigs. The sepoys near 
Delhi rose in May, 1857. Soon the northeastern part of India 
was in an uproar. The natives committed fearful atrocities. 
English troops were hurried to the East, and after hard fighting 
the revolt was suppressed. Parliament took this opportunity 
to bring the East India Company to an end and to provide for 
the direct administration of India through a secretary of state 
who should be a member of the cabinet. 

432. Policy of Cavour. — At the congress of Paris which 
settled the terms of peace between Russia and the allies, — 
France, England, and Sardinia, — Count Cavour, supported by 



426 



A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 



Napoleon, pointed out the troubled condition of Italy. Austria 
was largely responsible for this, not only in her own territories 
of Lombardy and Venice, but in the States of the Church and 
in Naples. Since Austria now had few friends in Europe, 
Cavour believed that Sardinia's opportunity had come. Every 
effort was made to prepare for the inevitable struggle. In 

a public subscription to for- 
tify Alessandria the people of 
Milan and of Venice shared, 
although these cities were 
ruled by Austria. Napoleon 
secretly promised Cavour that 
in case Sardinia should be 
attacked by Austria, France 
would declare war, and that 
the French armies would not 
withdraw until Lombardy, 
Venice, and one or two smaller 
states farther south had been 
added to Victor Emmanuel's 
kingdom. Tuscany and the 
other states of central Italy 
were to form a separate king- 
dom, over which Napoleon wished to place his cousin. In this 
way Italy would be composed of four kingdoms, which might 
be united into a federation under the honorary headship of the 
pope, though actually controlled by Victor Emmanuel. Napo- 
leon's reward was to be Savoy and the county of Nice. 

433. War in Italy. — The Austrians were so exasperated at 
the Sardinians and so sure of a speedy victory that they fell 
into the trap set for them by Cavour and declared war upon 
the Sardinians in April, 1859. A French army immediately 
crossed the Alps. The Austrians were defeated at Magenta 
and Solferino and driven back across the Mincio. Milan fell 
into the hands of the Sardinians. But Napoleon discovered 
that he had let loose a torrent which it would be difficult to 




Count di Cavour, 1810-1861. 

Became prime minister of the 
kingdom of Sardinia in 1852. 



STRUGGLE FOR CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY 427 

check. The Tuscans of Florence and the subjects of the pope 
at Bologna were as anxious as the Lombards to join the Sar- 
dinians. Unless the war was stopped there would be little 
chance of creating the central kingdom he had planned, and 
there might be a general uprising throughout Italy. He had 
been shocked also by the great loss of life at the battle of 
Solferino. Moreover, the Prussians had begun to assemble 
their army as if they intended to help Austria. Many ardent 
French Catholics protested vigorously against the help he 
seemed to give to rebels against the pope's authority. These 
considerations led him to make peace with the Emperor Fran- 
cis Joseph early in July. Sardinia was to receive only Lom- 
bardy. The states like Tuscany which had driven away their 
rulers were to restore them. Cavour was so angry at the turn 
of affairs that for a time he withdrew from the Sardinian 
government. 

434. Struggle for Central and Southern Italy. — The deposed 
rulers of central Italy were not restored. The peoples waited 
quietly until it became clear that some other settlement must 
be made. Late in the fall Napoleon proposed a congress which 
should make an acceptable arrangement. The pope would 
accept nothing but the submission of his rebellious subjects. 
Napoleon, annoyed by the rejection of his plan, and eager to 
obtain Nice and Savoy, agreed that the peoples of central Italy 
should vote upon the question of annexation to Sardinia, while 
the inhabitants of Nice and Savoy were also to vote upon 
annexation to France. It was hard for Victor Emmanuel to 
give up the land which had been the home of his ancestors, 
but it was a sacrifice he owed to the cause of Italian unity. 
This assured annexation in both cases, in March and April, 
1860. Meanwhile a revolt had begun in Sicily. Garibaldi 
immediately raised a small army and went to the assistance of 
the Sicilians. Victor Emmanuel and Cavour secretly favored 
the expedition, although Sardinia was at peace with the king- 
dom of Naples. By August Sicily was in the hands of Gari- 
baldi. He crossed the straits into the kingdom of Naples 



428 



A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 




and marched rapidly toward the capital. The king withdrew 
toward the north, and Garibaldi was enthusiastically received 
in the city of Naples. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel feared 
that Garibaldi would yield to men like Mazzini and use his 
power to start a republican movement. They sent word to 

Napoleon that unless Sardinia 
intervened Garibaldi might march 
upon Rome and attack the pope. 
This would place Napoleon in the 
dilemma of fighting against the 
Italian patriots or of allowing Aus- 
tria to reestablish her influence in 
Italy by acting as defender of the 
pope. If the Sardinians should 
intervene it would be necessary for 
them to proceed through papal 
Umbria and the Marches, the popu- 
lation of which was already clam- 
oring for annexation to Sardinia. 
There was no help for it, and 
Napoleon said simply, "Do it 
quickly." In October, when Victor 
Emmanuel appeared in the south, 
Garibaldi yielded patriotically, and 
the peoples of this kingdom, as 
well as of the papal lands east of 
the Apennines, voted to join the 
Sardinian kingdom. During the following winter the first 
Italian parliament assembled at Turin, and Victor Emmanuel 
took the title King of Italy. Only Rome and Venice remained 
outside the union. 

435. The Conflict in Prussia. — When the Prussian govern- 
ment had protested against the annexation of the kingdom of 
the Two Sicilies, Cavour had said to their ambassador, " I am 
setting an example which Prussia will by and by be very glad 
to imitate." If Prussia was to unite Germany, as Sardinia had 



Garibaldi. 
Giuseppe Garibaldi, born at 
Nice, 1807; died, 1882. An 
exile in 1834. At one time 
a naturalized citizen of 
the United States. Fought 
for Roman republic of 1849. 
After Naples and Sicily were 
united to kingdom of Sar- 
dinia he withdrew to island 
of Caprera, near Sardinia. 



REFORM IN RUSSIA 429 

united Italy, Prussia must also be ready to seize opportunities. 
In Germany, as in Italy, Austria was the enemy, although the 
rivalry was not embittered by differences of race, since Austria 
was still thought of as a German state. Frederick William IV. 
had been succeeded by his brother William I., who believed that 
Prussia must have a strong army if her word was to count in 
the settlement of German questions. Although the law pro- 
vided that all young men must serve three years in the army, 
it had become customary to dismiss them after two years' 
service in order to reduce army expenses. William deter- 
mined to enforce the law and asked additional money to meet 
the expenditure. Parliament granted this temporarily, but in 
1861 the Lower House refused to continue the grant. The 
House of Lords approved the king's course. The king believed 
that the real question was whether he was to rule or was, like 
the English kings, simply to carry out the will of the parliamen- 
tary majority. In 1862 he was on the point of abdicating be- 
cause his policy seemed doomed to failure. His courage was 
restored by Bismarck, whom he appointed president of his 
council- Bismarck resolved to carry out the king's policy even 
if it were necessary for a time to govern without parliament. 
There was no hope of obtaining at a general election a new 
House more submissive, and Bismarck prorogued parliament in 
order that the king might use the power given him in the 
constitution of making ordinances while parliament was not in 
session. This gave the government an opportunity to reorgan- 
ize the army and make it ready for effective action. 

436. Reform in Russia. — Alexander II., of Kussia, has been 
called the " Liberator " because he freed the serfs in 1861. 
He deserved the title also because he sought to give Russia a 
better system of courts and some rights of local self-government. 
The freedom of the serfs was opposed here as in Germany by 
the nobles, but they did not dare to resist openly. The tsar's 
advisers were anxious that the peasants should not wander 
away to the cities or become mere agricultural laborers, and 
the decree provided that the land should be divided between 



430 A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 

them and their lords. The land which they received was to 
be held in common by each group of villagers. The peasants 
were to pay their lords a sum of money representing the value 
of the services which they were wont to render, and the govern- 
ment offered to advance the money. This settlement satisfied 
the peasants no more than the lords, for the peasants thought 
that the land belonged to them and that the lords had, merely 
as the tsar's soldiers, been allowed to receive their labor or 
their contributions. The reforms in Russia excited the Poles, 
who still hoped for the reestablishment of their ancient king- 
dom. Russian officers greatly increased the discontent by dis- 
persing peaceful gatherings. The result was a dangerous insur- 
rection in Poland in 1863. Once more the sympathy of Europe 
for the Poles was aroused. France, England, and Austria 
attempted to interfere in their behalf, but the tsar would not 
accept advice. Bismarck seized the opportunity to put the 
tsar under obligation to Prussia. He did this by closing the 
Prussian frontier to Polish refugees. The insurrection was 
put down in 1864, and the Russian government began system- 
atically to destroy everything which reminded the Poles that 
they were a distinct nation. It attempted to separate the in- 
terests of peasants and lords by granting to the peasants the 
land which they had cultivated. The effect of this struggle 
was to chill the earlier enthusiasm for reform. 

437. The Blunders of Napoleon. — The prosperous days of 
Napoleon's empire were over. He had discovered that French 
finances were in disorder and that the debt was rapidly in- 
creasing. The Church party harassed him because of the 
help which he had given to the Sardinians. In order to find 
new friends he allowed, after 1860, more liberty of discussion 
in the legislative assembly. This only increased the number 
of those who wished a regular parliamentary government. At 
the same time he undertook to establish an empire in Mexico' 
with the Archduke Maximilian, the brother of the Austrian 
emperor, on the throne. Mexico had been in a state of chronic 
civil war, during which injury had been done to Europeans. 



Nummary 43i 

Napoleon, with England and Spain, undertook, in 1861, to 
collect damages by force. His allies abandoned him when 
they saw that he intended to take up the cause of one of the 
Mexican parties and overthrow the republic. His aim was to 
create a Eatin empire, which might serve as a barrier to the 
extension of the influence of the United States. The time was 
well chosen, for the United States was torn by the great Civil 
War, which Napoleon hoped would result in the final collapse 
of the Union. Napoleon would have recognized the indepen- 
dence of the Confederacy had the English government been 
ready to venture the same thing. The English aristocracy 
felt as he did, but the working people saw that slavery was 
their real enemy and that the North was their natural cham- 
pion. To carry out his Mexican scheme Napoleon sent over a 
French army in 1862. Before he was able to extricate himself 
from the affair, events in Europe showed how sorely he needed 
all his troops at home if he was to maintain the leadership he 
had held from 1853 until 1861. 



SUMMARY 

I. New Period of Social and Industrial Progress. — 1. Railway, 
penny post, and telegraph. 2. Effect of railway upon economic 
life of France. 3. Commercial treaty between France and Eng- 
land. 4. Reforms in kingdom of Sardinia. 5. Prussian success 
in control of Customs Union. 
II. The Turkish Empire. — 1. Movement of Christian peoples toward 
independence. 2. The attack of Mehemet Ali. 3. Causes of 
the Crimean war: («) desire of Russia to act as protector of 
Christian subjects of the sultan ; (6) quarrel over guardianship 
of the holy places at Jerusalem ; (c) Napoleon's personal policy. 
4. The war : (a) why waged principally in the Crimea ; (b) diffi- 
culties of the siege of Sebastopol. 5. Effect of terms of peace on 
condition of Christian subjects of sultan. 

III. Revolt in India. — 1. Fears of the Indian peoples. 2. End of the 

East India Company. 

IV. Italy. — 1. War of 1859: (a) how Cavour put Austria in the 

wrong ; (6) Napoleon's share ; (c) why Napoleon made peace 



432 A NEW ERA OF NATIONAL WARS 

so promptly. 2. The annexation movement : (a) situation in 
central Italy ; (&) how Napoleon was forced to countenance an- 
nexation ; (c) Garibaldi's Sicilian expedition ; why this led also 
to annexation of all southern Italy ; (d) the result — a kingdom 
of Italy. 
V. Prussia. — 1. Rivalry of Prussia and Austria for control of Ger- 
many. 2. Conflict of king and parliament in Prussia. 
VI. Russia. — 1. Emancipation of the serfs: (a) attitude of nobles; 
(6) the land settlement ; (c) attitude of peasants toward this. 
2. Polish revolt and policy of Russian government toward Poland. 
VII. Napoleon. — 1. Concession of more liberty of discussion. 2. The 
Mexican expedition. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1854. Outbreak of the Crimean war. 

1857. Sepoy revolt (connect end of East India Company). 

1859. Italian war. 

1862. Bismarck made president of Prussian council of ministers. 



FURTHER STUDY 

General Reading : same as for Chs. 25, 26. 
Paragraphs : — 

426. Reform in Sardinia : Stillman, 245-259. 

427. Customs Union : see paragraph 398 ; Sybel, II., 181-199. 
428-429. Balkan Peninsula, its peoples, and the Turks : Seigwobos, 

Ch. 21 ; for previous history, see paragraphs 62, 171, 206, 288, 
404. 

430. Crimean War : Seignobos, 789-791 ; Phillips, 338-360 ; Kendall, 

Nos. 140, 141 ; Tennyson's Charge of the Light Brigade. 

431. India : Hunter, Ch. 15 ; see paragraphs 305, 307 ; see also Ken- 

dall, 143, 144. 

432-434. Italy : plan of Napoleon and Cavour, Walpole, I., 206 ff. ; why 
Napoleon made peace, Walpole, 252 ff. ; exchange of central Italy 
for Nice and Savoy, Stillman, 304 ff. ; Garibaldi's attitude, two 
opinions, Stillman, 319-325 ; Probyn, 230-235 ; see further, 
Cesaresco, Cavour. 

435. Conflict in Prussia : Henderson, at length ; Sybel, II., 503-525 ; 
Bismarck's Autobiography, I., especially 293-297. 



FURTHER STUDY 433 

Paragraphs : — 

436. Abolition of Serfdom in Russia : Rambaud, III., Ch. 9 ; Skrine, 

Ch. 5 ; for serfdom in other countries, see paragraphs 161, 322, 
387. 

437. Mexican Expedition: especially Walpole, II., 70-100; Hart, 

Contemporaries, IV., No. 100 ; Kendall, 145, 146. 

Additional Reading : Kinglake, History of the Crimean War, 6 vols. ; 
Walpole, History of Twenty-five Years, 2 vols. ; Sybel's Founding 
of the German Empire, 6 vols. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

REFOUNDING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

438. Prussia's Task. — Prussia soon undertook for Germany 
what Sardinia had partially accomplished for Italy, — the 
uniting of the country under strong leadership. The work 
filled the years from 1863 to 1871. It did not result, as in 
Italy, in depriving all other rulers of their crowns. Only four 
or five states were incorporated in Prussia; the rest were united 
in a federal empire of which Prussia became the controlling 
member. In both Germany and Italy the principal enemy of 
union was Austria. German union was not at first opposed by 
the French, but the empire was proclaimed at the close of a 
triumphant invasion of France. Meantime the French impe- 
rial government was overthrown and a republic took its place. 
In 1866 and in 1870 Italy added Venetia and Rome to its king- 
dom and so completed the work begun in 1859. 

439. Rivalry of Austria and Prussia. — The struggle between 
Prussia and Austria for the control of Germany was a game of 
diplomacy and of war. To play such a game required a clear 
head and a bold will as well as a strong army. There must also 
be the self-restraint to rest satisfied when the real object had 
been gained, without being led by success to make unreason- 
able demands. Such qualities Bismarck possessed in greater 
measure than any of his rivals. He appeared to care little for 
the rights of princes or of states if these stood in the way of 
the achievement of his purpose, — a united Germany under 
Prussian leadership. It was to his guidance even more than 
to the generalship of Moltke, the Prussian chief of staff, that 
the astonishing fortune of Prussia was due. When the Aus- 

434 



THE SCHLESWIG-HOL STEIN AFFAIR 



435 



trians concluded to abandon their policy of keeping the Con- 
federation weak and to take the lead in reorganizing it, they 
were checkmated by Bismarck. Their plan was to have a 
congress of princes meet at Frankfort in August, 1863, over 
which the Emperor Francis Joseph was to preside. As the 
friends of Austria were in 
the majority, Prussia could 
be voted into a subordinate 
position. Bismarck per- 
suaded King William to 
stay away. The congress 
was a failure, and Fran- 
cis Joseph's advisers con- 
cluded to act with Prussia 
upon German questions, 
rather than to oppose Prus- 
sia by arrangements with 
the smaller states. An 
opportunity to try this 
policy came soon afterward 
when the quarrel over the 
duchies of Schleswig and 
Holstein broke out afresh. 
440. The Schleswig-Hol- 
stein Affair. — The Danes 
were willing to abandon 
Holstein if Schleswig could 
be incorporated in Den- 
mark. The population of 

Schleswig was partly German, and, supported by public opin- 
ion in Germany, was determined that the duchy should not 
become Danish. Neither Danes nor Germans would yield. 
When the German diet sent an army into Holstein in Decem- 
ber, 1863, Prussia and Austria decided to act separately and 
not as members of the Confederation. Their armies overran 
the duchies and entered Jutland in April, 1864. For a time 




Prince Bismarck. 

Born 1815; died 1898. A member 
of the Prussian landtag in 1847; 
Prussian representative at the diet of 
the restored Confederation at Frank- 
fort in 1851. Ambassador at Paris 
when he was recalled to become head 
of the Prussian ministry in 1862. 



436 REFOUNBING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

it seemed that the matter would be settled by dividing Schles- 
wig, giving the part inhabited by Danes to Denmark, but it 
proved impossible to find a satisfactory frontier line. If the 
duchies were freed from Danish rule, this did not mean that 
they would be governed by a prince of their own. Bismarck 
believed that as the small states usually opposed schemes 
for the reorganization of Germany, it would not be wise to 
add another to their number. No compromise was found ; 
Denmark was forced at the end of a new campaign to sue for 
peace, and in October the duchies were abandoned to Austria 
and Prussia as a conquest. 

441. Decline of Napoleon's Power. — Napoleon had made a 
weak attempt to intervene in the Danish affair, but, like his 
efforts in behalf of the Poles, it had resulted in failure. To 
recover his lost prestige he tried to strengthen his friendship 
with the Italians. Since 1849 there had been a French garrison 
in Borne to protect the pope. Napoleon agreed in 1864 to 
withdraw his soldiers if Victor Emmanuel would undertake 
not to attack the papal territory. The pope was indignant at 
Napoleon's action and in an encyclical denounced all the doc- 
trines which Revolutionary France and particularly Napoleon 
held dear. This served as an excuse for zealous churchmen 
in France to attack Napoleon's measures. In self-defence he 
allowed Duruy, his minister of public instruction, to pro- 
claim that in France primary education should be free and 
obligatory. 

442. Austria and Prussia Quarrel. — The conquered duchies 
of Schleswig-Holstein became a bone of contention between 
Austria and Prussia. Joint management failed. King William 
of Prussia was reluctant to go to war about the question, and 
so Bismarck, in 1865, agreed to a plan by which Prussia was to 
control Schleswig and Austria Holstein. When this plan also 
failed, Bismarck saw a natural ally in the new kingdom of 
Italy, which desired to take Venetia from Austria. Napoleon 
warned the Emperor Francis Joseph that rather than be 
attacked by two foes at once it would be better for him to 



AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR 437 

yield Venetia to the Italians, but Francis Joseph thought 
it dishonorable to abandon territory under the Austrian flag. 
In April, 1866, Bismarck made an agreement with the Italians 
in accordance with which they were to attack Austria in case 
war broke out between Prussia and Austria within three 
months. Napoleon expected that the struggle would be so 
severe that his mediation would be necessary and he could take 
as his reward territory along the Rhine. Unfortunately for 
him, just at this time his Mexican expedition ended ignomini- 
ously, for he was obliged by the threatening attitude of the 
United States to evacuate Mexico and to leave the Emperor 
Maximilian to his fate. 

443. Austro-Prussian War. — In the quarrel about the 
duchies Austria won the sympathy of the other German states, 
because the Austrian governor of Holstein seemed to favor 
those who demanded that the duchies should be independent. 
Bismarck saw that the time for negotiation was ended, and he 
persuaded King William to declare that Austria had broken 
her agreement and to order Prussian troops into Holstein. 
Austria appealed to the federal diet, and on June 14 the diet 
voted to make war upon Prussia. Prussia replied by declar- 
ing the Confederation at an end and announcing her intention 
to reorganize it with a parliament chosen by the people. The 
Prussian army was ready to move upon its enemies without 
delay. Rapidity of action was necessary, for Prussia had 
to face not only Austria, but Hanover in the west, Bavaria, 
Wurtemberg, and Baden in the south, and Saxony on the 
Bohemian frontier. Within eleven days one army had 
captured the Hanoverian troops, while the main body of the 
Prussian forces overran Saxony and invaded Bohemia. Still 
another army advanced into South Germany to keep these 
states from cooperating with Austria. The Italians, according 
to their agreement, attacked the Austrians in Venetia. The 
decisive battle of the war was fought at Sadowa or Koniggratz, 
July 3, and ended in a disastrous defeat for the Austrians. 
Although an Austrian army had defeated the Italians, the 



438 REFOUNBING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

advance of the Prussians toward Vienna made peace necessary. 
Bismarck was anxious to come to terms with Austria for fear 
that Napoleon might intervene and the Prussian army might 
not be able to withstand a new foe. In arranging the terms 
Bismarck had a sharp controversy with King William, who 
wished to annex Austrian Silesia, a strip on the Bohemian 
frontier, and the kingdom of Saxony as well as Hanover and 
Hesse-Cassel. Bismarck did not wish to take any Austrian 
territory nor even Saxony. As he afterward said, he wished 
" in view of our subsequent relations with Austria, as far as 
possible to avoid cause for mortifying reminiscences, if it could 
be managed without prejudice to our German policy." Only 
through the aid of the Crown Prince Frederick could he bring 
King William to agree to a plan of peace, which the king called 
" disgraceful." The terms finally arranged at Prague in August 
were the withdrawal of Austria from German affairs, the for- 
mation of a North German Confederation composed of the states 
north of the river Main, the annexation to Prussia of Schleswig- 
Holstein, of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the city of 
Frankfort. Bismarck declared that this seizure of states was 
based on " the right of the German nation to exist, to breathe, 
to unite," and added that " it is the right and duty of Prussia 
to give Germany the condition of things necessary for her 
existence." Italy's share in the victory was Venetia, won 
really by Prussian victories, since both the army and fleet of 
the Italians had been defeated by Austria. When Napoleon 
demanded some of the lands west of the Rhine, Bismarck flatly 
refused. 

444. North German Confederation. — Important political 
changes followed the war. This was especially true in Ger- 
many. Bismarck's plan for the North German Confederation 
was essentially the same which he had submitted to the Frank- 
fort diet before the war and which had been regarded as a 
manoeuvre to gain friends. It provided for a union in which 
the federal interests and the power to guard them, — that is, 
the right to declare war and make peace, to negotiate treaties, 



PRUSSIAN CONQUESTS 



439 




440 REFOUND1NG THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

to command the army and navy, — was intrusted to the king 
of Prussia, the leading state. The other affairs of the federa- 
tion were managed by a federal council, or Bundesrath, and a 
popularly elected assembly, or Reichstag. The king acted 
through his chosen chancellor, who presided over the federal 
council and who represented the federal government in the 
Reichstag. There was no ministry which, as in England, might 
be overthrown by the votes of a hostile majority in the popular 
assembly. The only check upon the government lefb to the 
Reichstag was its right to refuse to pass bills. The fear that 
even so small a power might jeopardize the military safety of 
the confederation led Bismarck to demand that the army ex- 
penditures be voted for a term of five years. The centre of 
power lay in the Bundesrath, or council of diplomats, represent- 
ing the states. Each representative must follow his instruc- 
tions. Prussia sent seventeen out of the total of forty-three, 
and could always control enough other states to have a major- 
ity in her favor. The only states not included in the con- 
federation were Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, Wiirtemberg, and 
Bavaria. Baden would have been glad to join, but there was 
strong opposition in Wiirtemberg and Bavaria. Bismarck 
endeavored to beguile these reluctant states by organizing a 
customs parliament which should be the Reichstag with addi- 
tional members from the southern states, and which should 
have power to regulate the affairs of the customs union, 
hitherto regulated by treaty. He hoped the southern mem- 
bers, when once members of such an assembly, would not 
hesitate to transform it into an enlarged Reichstag, competent 
to discuss politics as well as tariffs. He also made treaties of 
alliance with the South German states, so that in case of war 
all Germany would be united. These treaties remained 
secret, and the Erench still cherished the delusion that there 
would grow up in the south another federation which would 
counterbalance the North German Confederation. 

445. Austria-Hungary. — Austria had been taught by the 
disasters of 1859. and 1866 that the use she had made of her 



A NEW SYSTEM FOR FRANCE 441 

triumph, over the revolutionists of 1848 in Hungary, Italy, and. 
Germany had been unwise. Some attempt to discover a remedy 
was made in 1860, but this, by compelling the Hungarians 
to send representatives to an imperial parliament at Vienna, 
simply aroused protests. The emperor had already resumed 
negotiations with the Hungarians, but the war of 1866 brought 
them to a standstill. A year later a compromise was com- 
pleted, according to which the dominions of Francis Joseph 
were divided into two parts, Austria, including seventeen 
provinces, and Hungary, including Croatia, Slavonia, and 
Transylvania. He was to be emperor of Austria and apos- 
tolic king of Hungary. Each part was to have its own parlia- 
ment, with responsible ministries. For the interests common 
to both there were to be three imperial ministries, — foreign 
affairs, war, and finance. Commercial relations, tariffs, cur- 
rency, and the like were to be settled by agreement between 
the two. To control the expenditure of money set aside for 
common purposes, two delegations, each selected by its own 
parliament, were to negotiate at Vienna with each other in 
writing. Such machinery of government was cumbersome, 
but it ended the struggle between Austria and Hungary. The 
great force which worked for cooperation, if not for union, 
was the feeling of the different peoples grouped about the 
Emperor Francis Joseph that singly they would be of slight 
importance in European affairs while together they were one 
of the Great Powers. 

446. A New System for France. — The Emperor Napoleon 
sought a stronger support in the French nation in order to re- 
gain the ground lost since 1861. From 1866 to 1870 he made 
one concession after another, until finally he had so changed 
the constitution that France had a parliamentary system, with 
responsible ministers. France had little opportunity to try the 
new plan, for it had been in effect only three months when the 
war broke out during which the empire collapsed. 

447. The Enemies of Peace in France. — Napoleon had not 
abandoned his intention to extend the French territory toward 



442 BEFOUNBING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

the Rhine. He negotiated with the king of Holland for Lux- 
emburg, but after a transfer was agreed upon it Avas stopped 
by Prussia, supported by German public opinion. A plan to 
give Luxemburg to Belgium and to allow France to annex a 
strip of Belgian territory also fell through. While the Lux- 
emburg affair was under discussion, Bismarck published the 
military agreements with the South German states. Some of 
Napoleon's advisers constantly urged him to make war upon 
Prussia to check her power before it was too late. The Em- 
press Eugenie and the clerical party wished to humble the 
great northern Protestant state, and put Germany once more 
in the hands of the Catholics. Napoleon hoped that in such 
a war he might be assisted by Austria and by Italy. But 
at this time Italian sentiment was aroused against him. 
Garibaldi had attempted, in 1867, to revolutionize Rome 
as he had Sicily in 1860. Although Victor Emmanuel had 
promised to defend papal territory, Napoleon sent a force to 
Rome which defeated Garibaldi's little army. The French 
general telegraphed back that the chassepots, the new French 
breech-loading rifles, " worked splendidly." In the assembly 
at Paris Napoleon's minister declared that the Italians should 
never enter Rome. A French garrison was, accordingly, left 
there. After such words and such acts the Italians could not 
be expected to love the French nor to rush to Napoleon's aid. 
In Austria also it was only a small group at the imperial court 
which favored an alliance with France for a war of revenge. 

448. War between France and Germany. — Napoleon was 
personally opposed to the war policy, but his health was feeble 
and he could not resist the clamors of the empress and his 
courtiers. In July, 1870, a pretext was found in a misunder- 
standing over the candidature for the Spanish throne. Queen 
Isabella had been overthrown by revolution, in 1868, and the 
Spaniards had decided to offer the crown to Prince Leopold of 
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Although he was a distant rela- 
tive of King William of Prussia, his candidacy was not part of 
a Prussian scheme to secure influence in Spain. The French, 



SEDAN 



443 



especially the Parisians, were indignant that the country which 
Louis XIV. had fought a bloody war to control, and which 
had ever since been ruled by a French house, should have a 
Hohenzollern for its king. Even after Prince Leopold de- 
clined, the French ministry, seeking to win a bloodless victory 
over the hated rival, demanded, July 13, that King William 
agree that never again should such a candidacy be proposed. 
King William refused, and Bismarck telegraphed this refusal 
to all the Prussian em- 
bassies in Europe, and 
communicated it to the 
newspapers. It sounded 
like a challenge ; it acted, 
as Bismarck said it would, 
" like a red rag, upon the 
Gallic bull." July 19, 
the French government 
declared war, and cries 
of " On to Berlin " were 
heard in the streets of 
Paris. Scarcely a voice 
save that of Thiers was 
raised to check this heed- 
less folly. 

449. Sedan. — Napo- 
leon's only chance of suc- 
cess lay in an immediate 

invasion of South Germany. If he could gain a foothold 
there, he might shake the alliance between the South German 
states and the North German Confederation, and he would 
give Austria and Italy a chance to come to his assistance. If 
he should fail at the outset he could not expect them to aban- 
don their neutrality, especially since the tsar had intimated 
that unless Austria remained neutral he should not hold aloof. 
Such dreams were rudely dispelled by the discovery that the 
French armies could not be made ready for action before the Ger- 




COUNT VON MOLTKE. 

Born 1800; died 1891. Became chief 
of the Prussian general staff in 1858. 
Made a field-marshal in 1871. 



444 REFOUNDING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

mans had gathered their vastly superior forces along the north- 
eastern frontier. The Germans followed a plan which Moltke 
had drawn up when France and Prussia were brought to the 
verge of war by the Luxemburg question. Within eighteen 
days three armies were ready to strike, using the middle Rhine 
as a base of operations. By tremendous blows to right and 
left, delivered simultaneously, the French were driven back 
upon Metz and Chalons. The army under Bazaine, which should 
have retreated to Verdun, was held at Metz by three successive 
battles, culminating in the great battle of Gravelotte, August 
18. When the Chalons army, under the command of MacMahon, 
attempted to march to the relief of Bazaine, it was driven north- 
ward, defeated, and compelled to surrender at Sedan, Septem- 
ber 1. With this army Napoleon himself was captured. France 
had now no organized army of regular troops. The defeat of 
Sedan compelled the French to withdraw their garrison from 
Rome, which was immediately occupied by the troops of Victor 
Emmanuel, in spite of the resistance of the pope, Pius IX. In 
this way the unification of Italy was completed. 

450. The Republic Defends France. — September 4, as soon 
as the news of Sedan reached Paris, a republic was proclaimed 
and a Government of National Defence organized. Since the 
weight of the German attack must soon fall upon Paris, the 
new government was made up of Paris deputies to the legisla- 
ture, presided over by General Trochu, military governor of the 
city. It had scarcely been organized before the German army 
began the siege. In order that it might not be merely a Paris 
government a delegation had been sent to Tours to control the 
provinces, especially in the south, which had not suffered from 
invasion. In October, Gambetta, a popular republican orator, 
escaped from Paris in a balloon and by his fiery addresses 
aroused the country to a frenzy of resistance. The plan was to 
gather new armies for the relief of Paris or to throw them 
across the German line of communication and compel the Ger- 
mans to withdraw. The traitorous conduct of Bazaine, who 
negotiated with the Germans for the restoration of the empire 



THE COMMUNE OF 1871 



445 




instead of attempting to force his way out of Metz, sacrificed 
an army of one hundred and seventy thousand, and released 
for further operations the Germans who were besieging him. 
Paris endured the siege until the end of January, when supplies 
were exhausted. Attempts to relieve the city had failed and 
the new armies had been defeated. The Government of Na- 
tional Defence agreed, January 28, 
to an armistice which should give 
an opportunity for the meeting of 
a national assembly at Bordeaux 
to arrange terms of peace. The 
assembly chose Thiers chief of the 
government which was to super- 
sede the Government of National 
Defence. So far as peace was con- 
cerned his task was to soften the 
terms which Bismarck, forced by 
the military party, had made far 
more harsh than the terms granted 
to Austria in 1866. They were 
the cession to Germany of Alsace 
and the eastern part of Lorraine, 
including Metz, together with the 
payment of an indemnity of one 
billion dollars. The assembly im- 
mediately accepted these as the 
best which Thiers could obtain, in 
order to spare Paris a long occupation by the Germans who 
had entered the city on March 1. They withdrew on March 3. 
451. The Commune of 1871. — Although the Government of 
National Defence had carried on the war to the bitter end, many 
of the Paris leaders cried out against the surrender and the 
terms of peace. They also declared that the Bordeaux assembly 
was plotting to overthrow the republic. Unfortunately the 
national guards had not been disarmed when the armistice was 
made and the more violent among them organized resistance 



Louis Adolphe Thiers. 

Born at Marseilles, 1797 ; 
died near Paris, 1877. Came 
to Paris as a journalist in 
1821. Made prime minister 
by Louis Philippe in 1836 
and again in 1840. His His- 
tory of the French Revo- 
lution completed in 1827; 
History of the Consulate 
and the Empire in 1860. 



446 



BEFOUNDING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 



against the Thiers government. The result was an insurrec- 
tionary government called the Commune, which ruled the city 
from March 18 until overthrown by the national troops, May 27. 
Maddened by the struggle, the revolutionists set on fire many 
of the public buildings, the Tuileries, the Louvre, the Hotel de 
Ville, and the Palais de Justice. The Tuileries and the Hotel 

de Ville were totally destroyed. 
452. The New German Em- 
pire. — After the first victories 
over France, the German pa- 
triots realized that now was the 
opportunity to found the em- 
pire struggled for in 1848. In 
November the South German 
states had joined the North 
German Confederation. Many 
of the German leaders wished 
to change this confederation 
into an empire, without chang- 
ing its real character. Prussia, 
through her army and the vic- 
tories of 1866, controlled her 
sister states. The question was 
whether this control should be 
symbolized or recognized by 
conferring the imperial title 
upon the king of Prussia. 
Curiously enough, King William was as much opposed to this 
proposal as the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg. He was 
proud of the glories which clustered about his title as king ; 
they feared that their titles, scarcely a century old, would 
become less significant. Bismarck convinced them all of the 
necessity of the step, and, on January 18, in the famous hall 
of mirrors of the old palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles, Will- 
iam was saluted by the princes of Germany as their emperor. 
The work of 1866 was completed. 




William I. 

Born, 1797 ; died, 1888. King 
of Prussia after 1861, Ger- 
man emperor after 1871. As 
a young man he fought in 
the campaigns of 1814 and 
1815 against Napoleon I. 



SUMMARY 447 



SUMMARY 



I. Prussia and Austria. — 1. Bismarck's qualities as a leader. 2. "Why 
the king of Prussia did not attend the congress of princes. 3. The 
Schleswig-Holstein affair : (a) cause of the trouble ; (&) conduct 
of Austria and Prussia ; (c) why Napoleon's influence was wan- 
ing ; (d) compromise between Austria and Prussia. 4. Austro- 
Prussian war : (a) reason for Prussia's alliance with Italy ; 
(&) dangerous situation of Prussia ; (c) reasons for Prussia's 
success ; (d) peace policy of Bismarck. 5. Reorganization 
of Germany : («) annexations to Prussia ; (6) North German 
Confederation ; (c) the real power in the new government. 
6. Austria's settlement with Hungary. 
II. Prussia and France. — 1. Napoleon concedes parliamentary govern- 
ment in France. 2. French desire to annex territory in the north 
and east. 3. French loss of Italian friendship. 4. Franco- 
Prussian war: (a) occasion; (6) reason for French defeat; 
(c) overthrow of the empire; (d) efforts of the republic to defend 
France ; (e) terms of peace. 5. What was the commune ? 
6. A new German empire : («) relation to North German Con- 
federation ; (5) proclamation of King William as emperor. 



IMPORTANT DATES 

1864. Schleswig-Holstein war. 

1866. Austro-Prussian war. 

1867. Compromise between Austria and Hungary. 

1870. Franco-Prussian war : September 4, proclamation of a republic in 

France. 

1871. January 18. Proclamation of William I. as emperor of the new 

German empire. 

FURTHER STUDY 
General Reading : see Chs. 25, 26. 
Paragraphs : — 
439. Prussia and Austria : Henderson, II., Ch. 9 ; at length, Sybel, II., 

604-628. 
440-442. Schleswig-Holstein Affair : from different points of view, 

Beust, Memoirs ; Miiller, 300-318 ; Seignobos, 464-469 ; Walpole, 

I., 407-453. 



448 REFOUNDING THE GERMAN EMPIRE 

Paragraphs : — 

441. Beginnings of the Liberal Empire : Seignobos, 176-180. 

443. Preliminaries of Nikolsburg : Phillips, 439-444; see especially 

Bismarck, Autobiography, II., 47-53. 

444. North German Confederation: Lowell, I., 240 ff. Compare 

Confederation of 1815, paragraph 398, Rhenish Confederation, 
paragraph 381, and Holy Roman Empire, paragraphs 155, 156, 
248, 250, 323. 

445. Austria-Hungary: Lowell, II. , 132, 136, Ch. 10. 

446-447. Liberal Empire in France : Seignobos, 180 ff. ; documents 
in Anderson, No. 117. 

448. Bourbon Kingship in Spain : Spanish Affairs, Phillips, 462-463 ; 

see paragraphs 290, 295. 

449. Franco-Prussian War : Ems despatch, Anderson, No. 121 ; Hen- 

derson, Ch. 10. 

450. Peace and the French Republic : at length, Anderson, Nos. 

122-125 ; Hanotaux, I. 

451. The Commune : Seignobos, 189-194 ; Anderson, No. 126. 

452. The Empire in Germany: negotiations, Phillips, 482-483; Muller, 

460-465 ; growth of Prussia from Northmark to control of Ger- 
many, see paragraphs 100, 131, 156, 202, 291, 322, 395. 

Additional Reading : Hanotaux, Contemporary France, I. ; Wash- 
burne, Recollections of a Minister in France, 2 vols.; Memoirs of 
Beust, 2 vols. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

453. 1871-1890. — After the great national wars came a 
period of reorganization for the three or four countries espe- 
cially involved. Austria had begun this work in 1866. France 
undertook it in 1871. The Germans had founded their empire, 
but to make the union effective was the work of the next two 
decades. In Italy, King Victor Emmanuel said to parliament, 
" The country is free and united, our task is to render her great 
and happy." England had not been drawn into these conflicts, 
but she undertook many reforms, and was confronted by the 
demand of the Irish for Home Rule. 

454. Armed Peace. — After 1871 the Prussian leaders showed 
that they had been fighting for the union of Germany, and 
that, unlike the first Napoleon, they did not intend to use their 
newly won power to make further conquests. It is true that 
the terms of peace which they granted to France were so harsh 
that they were forced to remain on guard against French 
attempts to win back the lost provinces. Consequently the 
peace which in western Europe outlasted the century was an 
armed peace, almost as burdensome as war. Fortunately for 
Germany, the peace which Bismarck made with Austria in 
1866 had left no such bitter memories, so that the Emperor 
William and the Emperor Francis Joseph quickly came to an 
understanding. When the tsar joined in this agreement, in 
1872, it was called the League of the Three Emperors. The 
most important part for Germany was a guarantee of the 
existing European frontiers. 

449 



450 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

455. Prussia and the Church. — For several years Prussia 
was engaged in a serious quarrel with the Catholic Church. 
It was called the Kulturkampf, or the fight for civilization, 
because Bismarck's supporters believed that the Catholic 
leaders were trying to bring back the days when the Church 
was stronger than the State, and learning was subject to the 
decrees of councils or the terrors of the Inquisition. It grew 
out of an attempt of the bishops to compel the acceptance 
among their priests and in their universities of the doctrine of 
papal infallibility proclaimed at the Vatican council in 1870. 
When those who called themselves " Old Catholics " resisted 
and were deprived by the bishops of their positions, the Prus- 
sian government interfered through the " May Laws," so called 
because the first of them were adopted in May, 1873. The 
government was almost as severe as Napoleon I. had been in 
his management of the Catholic clergy. The result was that 
nearly all the Prussian bishoprics became vacant, and over a 
thousand parishes were without priests. Even the Protestants 
began to think that rights of conscience were being set at 
nought, and for lack of supporters the government was obliged 
to compromise. Of the May Laws several important pro- 
visions remained, — the inspection of the schools by State 
officials instead of by the clergy, the obligation in marriage 
of a contract before the civil magistrate, even if there was also 
a religious ceremony, and the recording by the magistrates of 
births, marriages, and deaths, a duty previously intrusted to 
the clergy. 

456. Imperial Laws. — Before the Kulturkampf was ended, 
the empire was slowly taking up tasks which had belonged to 
the different states, and accustoming the people to look to it as 
something more than a union against foreigners. In 1873 the 
constitution was amended so that the Reichstag might pass 
laws upon all subjects, civil as well as criminal. In this way 
legislation which in the United States has been left for the 
individual states was undertaken in Germany by the federal 
or imperial government. A new gold currency was provided, 



A NEW FRENCH CONSTITUTION 451 

on the face of which was stamped the emperor's figure, and on 
the back the imperial arms. 

457. France after the War. — To the French the war had 
left a task almost crushing. The northern departments were 
occupied by the victorious Germans, who would not withdraw 
their army of occupation until the war indemnity, more than 
twice the annual income of the government, should be paid. 
How long the government would endure no one knew, nor 
were the people agreed upon what should take its place. In 
the assembly elected to ratify the treaty of peace, there were 
more monarchists than republicans, but even the monarchists 
could not decide which to restore, — the count of Chambord, 
the grandson of Charles X., or the count of Paris, the grand- 
son of Louis Philippe. Outside the assembly the people were 
more and more in favor of a republic. In this time of per- 
plexity Thiers, who remained at the head of the government, 
realized that the first need was to pay the Germans and to put 
an end to their armed occupation. French citizens were ready 
to loan their money, but the difficulty was to transfer such a 
vast sum to Germany without depriving the country of most 
of its stock of gold and silver and paralyzing industry and 
trade. The plans of Thiers were so wise that within two years 
the indemnity had been paid without seriously disturbing 
business. In order not to send the money directly from 
France he arranged with foreign bankers for bills of exchange 
upon Berlin. Many of these were paid for by foreign sub- 
scriptions to French loans, others by French exports. The 
government was able also to grant money to cities and districts 
which had suffered from the ravages of war, and to pay for a 
reorganization of the army on the system of universal service. 
But all this necessitated the levy of new taxes and raised the 
annual budget of expenditure from four hundred to six hun- 
dred million dollars. 

458. A New French Constitution. — The French political 
leaders gave Thiers scarcely time to complete these arrange- 
ments before their quarrels drove him from office. He had 



452 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

regarded the republic as the form of government which divided 
Frenchmen the least. After he retired in May, 1873, the 
monarchists made a compromise among themselves, according 
to which the count of Chambord was to be made king, and, 
since he had no children, his successor was to be the count of 
Paris. They had actually gone so far as to prepare for the 
formal entry of the new king, when a disagreement over the 
flag upset the arrangement. The count of Chambord felt in 
honor bound to keep the white banner of old France, which his 
exiled grandfather had intrusted to him. He looked upon the 
tricolor as the flag of the Revolution. The Orleanists refused 
to abandon the tricolor. In 1875 it became impossible to resist 
the demand that the republic should be organized, but the new 
constitution was so planned that the president, now Marshal 
MacMahon, could be replaced by a king, if the monarchists 
were ever strong enough to bring about such a change. Be- 
sides the president, there were a senate and a chamber of 
deputies. One-fourth of the senators were to be chosen for 
life by the assembly, and the rest by electoral colleges in each 
department. The government was to be carried on as in Eng- 
land by a council of ministers which should remain in office 
only so long as they were supported by majorities in the sen- 
ate and in the chamber of deputies. It was also decided that 
the president should be elected at a joint meeting of the two 
houses. The first chamber of deputies contained over twice as 
many republicans as monarchists, but it was not until three 
years later that the republicans gained a majority in the senate. 
459. A New Campaign. — With the assistance of President 
MacMahon in 1877, the monarchists made a desperate effort to 
regain complete control. They formed a ministry opposed to 
the wishes of the majority in the chamber of deputies and pre- 
pared for new elections, replacing local officers who favored 
the republic by men who would work for the election of depu- 
ties devoted to the monarchy. This conspirac}^ called " the 
Sixteenth of May," failed, for by the new elections the repub- 
licans maintained their large majority in the chamber. In 



REFORM IN ENGLAND 453 

1879 MacMahon resigned, and Grevy, a stanch republican, 
was chosen president. 

460. Italy. — In completing its union Italy had despoiled the 
papacy of territories which it had held for centuries. Had 
the pope been an ordinary monarch this would have been of 
little importance. But, he was the head of a great Church, to 
which several European peoples, besides the Italians, belonged, 
and it was necessary to protect his liberty of action or else his 
spiritual independence might be questioned. This the Italian 
government attempted to accomplish by the Law of Guaran- 
tees. The pope, like the king of Italy, was to be treated as 
inviolable, government officials were not to enter his palaces, 
and as an independent sovereign he might receive ambassadors 
from foreign states. The government was also to pay him an 
annuity of six hundred thousand dollars. This plan was offen-; 
sive to the pope, who regarded himself as a prisoner within the 
Vatican palace, and who declined to accept the proffered annuity. 
Catholics were forbidden to take part in national politics. The 
Italians feared for a time that France or Austria might try to re- 
store the pope's territories by force. To guard against this they 
reorganized their army on the Prussian plan and erected strong 
fortifications about Rome. France, under the influence of the 
monarchists, menaced Italy more than Austria. As early as 
1873, the Emperor Francis Joseph showed his desire to live 
at peace with Italy. In consequence Victor Emmanuel's rela- 
tions with Austria and Germany became more cordial than 
with France. 

461. Reform in England. — During this period the English 
peacefully carried forward reforms which made the country 
more and more democratic and gave to laboring people both on 
the farms and in the shops better means of guarding their 
rights. In 1867 the right to vote had been granted to almost 
all householders. The voters were now protected from intimi- 
dation by the adoption of the secret ballot, and still later by 
severe laws against bribery. The right to form trade-unions 
and to manage strikes was extended, so that no act which was 



454 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

innocent in an individual became criminal merely because it 
was done by a group of strikers. Education was made free, 
and children were compelled to attend schools. Children 
under ten could not be employed in factories, and until the age 
of fourteen they must divide their time between the school and 
the factory. The practice in the country districts of enclosing 
the common lands and forests, depriving the poor of their 
rights of pasture and the whole community of the enjoyment 
of large natural playgrounds, was stopped. Some of these 
things were done by the Liberals and some by the Conserva- 
tives or Tories. On the whole the Liberals were still in favor 
of laissez /aire, or letting things take their own course, and it 
was from the Conservatives that the trade-unions gained their 
new law. In Ireland, however, it was the Liberals, under 
Gladstone's leadership, who tried to put an end to discontent 
by bettering the condition of the people. Gladstone first dis- 
established, that is, changed into a private organization, the 
Irish Church, which was Protestant like the English Church, 
in spite of the fact that four-fifths of the Irish were Catholics. 
His Land Act was an attempt to prevent tenants being driven 
from their lands without compensation for the improvements 
which they had made. 

462. Eastern Question. — After 1875 the attention of Euro- 
peans was fixed upon the Turkish empire. The withdrawal of 
Greece, Servia, and Rumania from direct administration by 
Turkish officers had not taught the Turks how to make their 
Christian subjects more contented, or to check the desire for 
national independence. Most of these subjects were Slavs and 
were sure of the sympathy of Servia and Montenegro, as well 
as of Russia. Driven by their sense of wrong, their hatred of 
Turkish masters, and their hopes of freedom, they rose through- 
out Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875. Austria was afraid lest 
the Serbs of these provinces should unite with the Serbs in 
Servia to form a Great Servia, and tried to settle the trouble by 
urging reforms upon the Turkish government. Similar de- 
mands were made by the other Powers. It was difficult to settle 



EASTERN QUESTION 



455 



the matter by negotiation, first, because no one trusted Turkish 
promises, and, second, because the different Powers were more 
eager to make gains for themselves than to assist the revolted 
provinces to freedom. Austria, driven out of Germany in 1866, 
had turned her face toward the east and hoped some day to 
extend her territory to Salonica on the Grecian Sea. By the 
opening of the Suez Canal in 1867 the route to India was 




The House of Commons. 

The Speaker's chair, with the Ministerial benches at 
his right and the Opposition benches at his left. 



shortened, and England feared any movement of the Russians 
toward the eastern Mediterranean or on the borders of Persia. 
Russia disclaimed any intention to occupy Constantinople or 
to control the Dardanelles, but it was hard for either Austria 
or England to believe such promises, because the Russians, ever 
since the time of Peter the Great, had been working to extend 
their territory in that direction. While the negotiations were 
going on slowly the Bulgarians made a feeble attempt to follow 



456 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

the example of their neighbors in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
To crush them the Turks let loose upon the province a host of 
savage soldiers who slaughtered peaceful inhabitants by the 
thousand. Aroused by these " atrocities," the English people 
forced their government to abandon its intention of supporting 
the Turks as in 1854. Servia and Montenegro declared war 
upon Turkey. This was followed by a Russian declaration of 
war in the spring of 1877. 

463. Russo-Turkish War. — The invasion of the Turkish 
empire proved more difficult than the Russians had antici- 
pated. For a long time they were held in check before the 
fortifications of Plevna, and not until January, 1878, did they 
force the Turks at Adrianople to negotiate for peace. The 
treaty of San Stefano, signed soon afterward, acknowledged 
the independence of tributary' states like Rumania, Servia, 
and Montenegro; united the Bulgarians north and south of 
the Balkans, together with a part of Macedonia, including 
ports like Salonica on the Grecian Sea, into a self-governing 
principality, merely tributary to the sultan ; and gave Russia 
several towns in eastern Asia Minor, promising also a large 
war indemnity. This treaty was offensive to both the 
Austrians and the English, although it suited the needs of the 
Christian peoples of the Turkish empire. Austria and Eng- 
land began to arm. Russia, after her struggle with Turkey, 
was too exhausted to face new foes and consented to submit 
the settlement to a congress of representatives of the Powers 
at Berlin. Before the congress met in June, 1878, England 
settled her differences with Russia. She also accepted from 
Turkey the island of Cyprus, promising the Turks aid in case 
the Russians attempted to encroach further upon Turkish ter- 
ritory in Asia. At the congress the Bulgaria which Russia 
had planned was divided into three parts, only the northern 
part to become a self-governing principality. The territory, 
called East Rumelia, immediately south of the Balkans, was to 
be governed by a prince appointed by the Turks, and Mace- 
donia was to remain a portion of the Turkish empire. To 



THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 



457 




458 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

Austria was given the task of maintaining order in Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, which practically meant that she could annex 
those lands. The independence of Servia and Rumania was 
recognized. 

464. Russian Nihilism. — After the close of the war the 
Russian government was perplexed and even terrified by an 
outburst of rebellion at home. Liberal Russians had hoped 
that the Tsar Alexander II. would follow the emancipation of 
the serfs by a reform in the system of government which should 
give his subjects more voice in the management of their affairs. 
Several years passed, and nothing was accomplished. Eager 
hopes gave way to chagrin or to a resolution to overthrow the 
despotic system by force. A party was secretly organized 
which was nicknamed the Nihilists. The members professed 
to believe that man was too much governed, and that, if left to 
himself, he would be happy, peaceful, and would never disturb 
his neighbor in order to improve his* own fortunes. Some men 
joined the party simply in order through it to frighten the tsar 
into changing the government. So well were the secrets of the 
party kept that, though prominent officials were murdered, the 
police had the greatest difficulty in detecting the conspirators. 
Finally the Nihilists condemned the tsar to death. The gov- 
ernment attempted to avenge the murders that were committed, 
by placing the empire practically under military rule. This 
plan failed, and the tsar was about to gather an assembly of 
notables to advise with him in the government when, in 
March, 1881, he was assassinated. By this time nearly all 
the leaders of the Nihilists were dead or exiled to Siberia, and 
Alexander III. succeeded in restoring order. Russia not only 
did not become more liberal, she began the slow process of 
compelling the outlying states like Finland, Lithuania, and 
Livonia to abandon their national habits and become more 
thoroughly Russian. 

465. Triple and Dual Alliances. — After the differences be- 
tween England and Russia in regard to Turkey were settled, 
the two countries were brought to the verge of war in central 



ENGLAND IN EGYPT 459 

Asia. The Russians in 1878, thinking war with England in- 
evitable, made an alliance with the ameer of Afghanistan. In 
order to keep a country so near to India from falling under 
Russian control, the English drove this ameer from the throne 
and placed upon it one whom they could control. Upon 
European alliances, also, the Russo-Turkish war had an im- 
portant influence. The Russians had been disappointed in the 
attitude of Germany during the Berlin Congress. Austria, 
without striking a blow, had been brought nearer Constanti- 
nople than Russia herself. Bismarck had thought that peace 
would be made more secure if influence in the East were di- 
vided between the two. When he found that Russia deeply 
resented his action, he advised the Emperor William to make 
a treaty for mutual protection with the Emperor Erancis 
Joseph. This was done in 1879. Italy soon entered this 
union and it became the Triple Alliance, the aim of which was 
to guard each state from its special antagonists. Some years 
later, to counterbalance this League of Peace, a similar League, 
or Dual Alliance, was made by Russia and France. 

466. England in Egypt. — Shortly after the close of the 
Russo-Turkish war, England gained so secure a position in 
the eastern Mediterranean that her fears of Russia steadily 
decreased. The khedive of Egypt had become heavily in- 
debted to European bankers, and France and England had 
taken control of his finances. A party of Egyptian officers 
raised the cry of " Egypt for the Egyptians," gained control 
of the army and the khedive in April, 1882, and drove away 
the French and English ministers. France declined to act, but 
England resolved to restore order. Meanwhile the Egyptians 
had massacred many foreigners in Alexandria. The English 
marched upon Cairo, captured the leaders of the uprising, and 
undertook to manage the affairs of the khedive, assuring the 
French that they would withdraw as soon as order was fully 
reestablished. The control of Egypt was especially important, 
for it carried with it the guardianship of the Suez Canal, the 
new route to India. Another thing that allayed English 



460 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

fears of Russia was the fact that the Bulgarians, instead of 
putting themselves under the leadership of their Russian lib- 
erators, showed a sturdy desire to manage their own affairs. 
They even went so far as to annex East Rumelia to Bulgaria, 
in defiance of the treaty of Berlin. 

467. German Politics. — In Germany Bismarck had relied 
chiefly upon the support of the National Liberals. In 1878 he 
began to turn toward the Conservatives because he was plan- 
ning measures distasteful to the Liberals. He wished to give 
the empire a revenue which would put an end to the need of 
calling upon the separate states for heavy contributions toward 
imperial expenditures. Such a revenue must be obtained by 
raising the customs duties, which, as under the old customs 
union, remained very low. He also wished to protect the 
farmers and manufacturers against American and Russian 
wheat and against English manufactures. The duties which 
the Reichstag voted rapidly increased the imperial revenue until 
comparatively little had to be asked of the states. In 1884 
Bismarck, to find new outlets for German manufactures, raised 
the German flag over parts of Africa unclaimed by other coun- 
tries and over several of the South Sea islands. This led to a 
scramble for African lands, in which England and France took 
part, so that by 1890 no portion of African soil remained un- 
partitioned. Another reason why Bismarck abandoned the 
Liberals was his determination to check the socialists, whose 
numbers were rapidly increasing, partly because of the growing 
wealth and power of the capitalists and partly because many 
men were disappointed that Germany seemed to be so like an 
intrenched camp, while the savings of the people were spent 
upon soldiers and guns. The Reichstag first deprived the 
socialists of the right to meet or to publish their newspapers. 
Bismarck thought a more effective means of checking their 
influence would be to care for the welfare of the working 
people, as he believed a Christian state should do. With this 
aim he persuaded the Reichstag to make provisions, in accord- 
ance with which the working people were insured against 



FRANCE AND ENGLAND 461 

sickness, accident in the mines or factories, and against ina- 
bility to support themselves in old age. The laws were not 
merely passed ; they were enforced. The condition of the 
poorer people was made less burdensome ; but the socialists 
and their party, called the Social Democrats, continued to 
grow. Finally the special laws against their meetings or their 
writings were repealed. The old emperor had died in 1888, 
and had been succeeded, after the brief reign of his son 
Frederick III., by his grandson William II. This prince 
determined, like Louis XIV., to be his own minister, and in 
1890 dismissed Bismarck. 

468. France and England. — France also had political strug- 
gles, chiefly against some of the more ambitious Catholic 
clergy who disliked the republic and endeavored to control 
the youth through the Church schools. In 1888 the com- 
pany which had attempted to build a canal through the 
Isthmus of Panama failed, covering many prominent poli- 
ticians with disgrace, because they had sold to the company 
laws giving it special advantages. Thousands of stockholders 
lost all their savings. In England the reforms begun earlier 
were carried forward, but the question which excited the 
country most was Gladstone's proposal, in 1886, to give 
Home Rule to Ireland, that is to reestablish a parliament at 
Dublin which should manage the affairs of Ireland, except the 
army and the customs duties. Since no Irish members were 
to be sent to the British parliament, Ireland would be almost 
as separate from England as Hungary from Austria. Many of 
Gladstone's own followers believed that if the Irish were 
granted such a parliament, they would use it to bring about 
a complete separation from England. These men seceded from 
the Liberals and formed a new party called the Liberal Union- 
ists. Gladstone did not have enough followers left, including 
the Irish members, to cany through his measure. His defeat 
led him to appeal to the country by ordering a new election of 
members. The fear of the English that the Irish would prove 
disloyal worked against him in the campaign. His foreign 



462 AFTER THE GREAT NATIONAL WARS 

policy had also been disliked. In 1877, before he became 
prime minister, the government had annexed the South African 
Republic. After three years the Boers tried to reestablish 
their independence. It fell to Gladstone to put down their 
insurrection. Instead of this he acknowledged their indepen- 
dence, retaining for England only a shadowy control over them. 
The result was his defeat. The Conservatives, under Lord 
Salisbury, established greater local self-government in the 
English counties, with the vague notion of some day doing 
the same for Ireland. In 1887 Queen Victoria's jubilee, or the 
fiftieth anniversary of her reign, was celebrated, and as dele- 
gates came from British lands all over the world, men realized 
more clearly that a Greater Britain had been growing up, and 
they began to plan as much for the welfare of the broad em- 
pire as for the older three kingdoms. 



SUMMARY 

I. Problems of Germany, France, Italy, England. — 1. Germany: 
(a) peace policy of Bismarck ; (6) reasons for his conflict with 
the Church and its results ; (c) imperial legislation. 2. France : 
(a) paying the indemnity to Germany ; (b) efforts to restore the 
monarchy ; (c) Thiers driven from office ; (d) organizing the new 
republic ; (e) the Sixteenth of May. 3. Italy : (a) the relations 
of State and Church ; (b) danger of attack by France. 4. England : 

(a) ballot reform, factory laws, greater freedom of combination 
among workingmen ; (6) attempts to settle the Irish question. 

II. The Eastern Question again. — 1. Insurrections in the Turkish 
empire. 2. Reasons why the question could not be settled by 
negotiation. 3. The Russo-Turkish war : (a) settlement pro- 
posed at San Stefano ; (b) objections of England and Austria ; 
(c) settlement made at Berlin. 4. Effect upon alliances in 
western Europe. 5. England's position in the eastern Mediter- 
ranean after the occupation of Egypt. 
ILL Politics of the Later Years. — 1. Russia: (a) origin of Nihilism ; 

(b) change in the policy of the Russian government. 2. Ger- 
many : (a) Bismarck's policy of protection and colonial expansion ; 
(6) his war on the socialists ; (c) his laws promoting the welfare 
of the working people ; (d) Bismarck's dismissal. 3. France : 



SUMMARY 463 

(a) struggle for control of schools ; (6) Panama scandal. 4. Eng- 
land ; (a) Home Rule problem ; (b) Gladstone's foreign policy j 
(c) " Greater Britain. " 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1873. Prussian May laws. Thiers resigns presidency of France. 

1875. Adoption of French constitutional laws. 

1878. Congress of Berlin. 

1882. Occupation of Egypt by England. 

1886. Gladstone's first Home Rule bill. 

1890. Bismarck dismissed by the Emperor William II. 

FURTHER STUDY 
Paragraphs : — 

454. Armed Peace : Phillips, 486-491 ; Seignobos, 818-822 ; compare 

Holy Alliance, paragraph 402. 

455. Kulturkampf: Lowell, II., 12 ff. 

456. German Legislation: Lowell, L, 243 ff. 

457-459. France after the War : Seignobos, 194-216 ; at length, Cou- 
bertin, Hanotaux ; Anderson, Nos. 129-133. 

460. Italy : Stillman, Ch. 14. 

461, 468. Home Rule: Bright, History of England, vols. IV., V. ; 

Morley's Gladstone ; Kendall, No. 132 ; see paragraphs 259, 
265, 287. 
462-463. Eastern Question : Fyffe, Ch. 25 ; Skrine, 243-265 ; Seigno- 
bos, 823-827 ; compare Crimean War, paragraphs 428-430. 

464. Nihilism : Skrine, 265-275. 

465. Triple Alliance : Seignobos, 827-829. 

466. Egypt : Johnston, 231-235 ; Reinsch, Col. Gov. ; at length, Milner ; 

compare paragraphs 365, 428. 

467. German Reforms : Seignobos, 498-505 ; German colonies: Keltie ; 

Johnston, Ch. 14; Reinsch, World Politics, 261-268. 

468. French Affairs : Seignobos, 216 ff. ; English in South Africa, 

Theal, Ch. 26 ; Bryce, 157-167. 

Additional Reading : Morley's Gladstone, 2 vols. ; Coubertin, France 
under the Third Republic ; Keltie, Partition of Africa.; John- 
ston, Colonization of Africa ; Milner, English in Egypt ; Theal, 
South Africa; Bryce, Impressions of South Africa; Reinsch, 
Colonial Government and World Politics; special articles in 
Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

469. The End of the Century. — The last years of the nine- 
teenth century witnessed no wars in Europe save the brief and 
disastrous campaign of the Greeks against the Turkish empire. 
Each country kept large armies under constant training, and 
the greater states of the Continent were grouped in the Triple 
Alliance and the Dual Alliance. The continuance of peace 
enabled the nations to build up their industries and to improve 
the manner of working and of living, especially in great cities, 
where the rapidly growing population was crowded into un- 
wholesome shops and tenement houses. Such matters were 
not left to the enterprise or philanthropy of private citizens 
alone, for the different legislatures began to act on the theory 
that the government should care " paternally " for the interests 
of the people. The period of commercial treaties providing 
for a trade relatively free between different countries came to 
an end, and each nation, with the exception of England, sought 
to protect its own markets against the competition of foreign 
merchants and manufacturers. At the same time each tried 
to advance the business of its merchants, particularly with 
outlying parts of the world like Asia and Africa. 

470. The Home Rule Question. — Gladstone was over eighty 
years old when a new Liberal victory at the general elections 
of 1892 gave him another opportunity to attempt a settlement 
of the Irish question. The task was difficult, for unless the 
members for Ireland joined his party, he could not muster 
a majority. This was likely to decrease the popularity of his 
proposals in England, a majority of the English members being 

464 



THE HOME RULE QUESTION 



465 



opposed to a grant of Home Rule. It would also embolden 
the House of Lords to reject the bill, even if it obtained a 
majority in the Commons. Gladstone's own followers were 
divided into groups, each of which preferred its pet measures 
to those advocated by other groups. Nevertheless, he per- 
sisted. In the plan which he brought forward he proposed 
that Ireland should have 
a parliament authorized 
to levy taxes, pass laws, 
provide for education, and 
control the police. Eighty 
Irish members were still 
to sit at Westminster, with 
the right to vote upon 
matters which concerned 
the empire, though not 
upon the affairs of Scot- 
land or of England. After 
a long and excited discus- 
sion the bill passed the 
House by 34 majority. A 
week later it was thrown 
out by the Lords by a 
vote of 419 to 41. Glad- 
stone could have dissolved 
parliament and have ap- 
pealed to the electors for 
a majority large enough 
to overawe the House of 

Lords, but there was no likelihood that he would obtain such 
a majority, and he took up other parts of his programme. In 
March, 1894, after he had passed a bill granting a measure of 
local self-government to the parishes, completing the work 
begun by the Salisbury government in its County Councils 
Act, he resigned his position as prime minister and withdrew 
from public life. At a general election shortly after his 




William Ewart Gladstone. 

Born, 1809; died, 1898. Educated at 
Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford. 
Entered parliament in 1832; became a 
member of the cabinet in 1843; prime 
minister for the first time in 1868. 



466 LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

retirement the Liberals were decisively defeated, proving that 
the Lords had been interpreters of public sentiment on the 
question of Home Rule. During the last years of the century 
the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists remained in power 
chiefly because the Liberals had no great leader nor any popular 
programme. 

471. Germany under William II. — In Germany the Emperor 
William II. sought by constant appeals to the loyalty of the 
army to check the growth of the Social Democratic party, 
which, nevertheless, by 1900 controlled over two million votes. 
A new party called the Agrarians also forced itself to the 
front. It was composed chiefly of landowners, who were 
alarmed at the fall in the price of agricultural produce, while 
the prices of manufactured articles were steadily increasing. 
In 1892 German trade was seriously threatened by the new 
high tariffs of France and the United States, and the govern- 
ment tried to enlarge its remaining markets by arranging 
commercial treaties with Austria-Hungary, Italy, Belgium, 
and other states. Two years later a similar treaty was made 
with Russia, in spite of the opposition of the new party, which 
cried out that if the duties on grain were lowered, cheap Rus- 
sian wheat would drive German wheat from the market. The 
Agrarians, however, were strong enough to force from the 
government many concessions, notably the exclusion of certain 
American food products. The opening of a ship canal from 
Kiel to the Elbe River, connecting the North and the Baltic 
seas, strengthened German trade, and made simpler the de- 
fence of the German coast. The government did not relax its 
zeal in securing markets outside of Europe for the investment of 
capital or for the sale of goods. Using as a pretext the murder 
of two missionaries, it compelled the Chinese to cede, in 1898, 
on a ninety-nine-year lease, the bay of Kiao-Chau, with a pro- 
tectorate over the Kwantung peninsula. It was at the close of 
the century that the separate states were bound still more 
closely to the empire by the adoption of a common code of 
civil law, and by codes of civil and criminal procedure. The 



FRENCH POLITICS 467 

work of 1871 had become established upon unshakable 
foundations. 

472. French Politics. — Ever since the commercial treaty be- 
tween Napoleon III. and England, France had placed only low 
tariffs upon imports. She now abandoned this policy. In 
1892 a ministry, supported by the farmers and by the manu- 




Palais Bourbon. 

Now the palace of the French Chamber of Deputies. It was be- 
gun in 1722 by the Dowager Duchess of Bourbon and extended by 
the Prince of Conde after 1770. Became national property dur- 
ing the Revolution. It was transformed into an assembly hall 
for the Council of Five Hundred. This view is from the court. 

facturers, chiefly of the north and east, carried through a scheme 
of a high maximum and a more moderate minimum tariff, the 
minimum tariff to be conceded only on goods of countries which 
granted similar favors to French trade. The result was a series 
of tariff wars after which France was obliged to concede the 
minimum rates to important countries. As in Germany, the 
socialist groups steadily gained in numbers so that they were 
granted a representative in the Wal deck-Rousseau ministry, 



468 LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

formed in 1899. During these years the French people were 
divided into two factions by the question of the guilt or inno- 
cence of Captain Dreyfus, accused of selling military secrets to 
the Germans. He was apparently the victim of the misdeeds 
of another man. After he had- been imprisoned a long time, the 
highest courts decided that there was no sound evidence against 
him and ordered a new trial. Although a court-martial again 
declared him guilty, President Loubet immediately pardoned 
him. This controversy was hardly ended when another began 
over the influence which the Catholic Church had gained upon 
education through its schools, in which the teachers were monks 
or nuns. 

473. The Dual Alliance. — The position of France in Europe 
was strengthened by the formation of an alliance with Russia 
in 1894 or 1895. This alliance was called the Dual Alliance 
in distinction from the Triple Alliance which continued to bind 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Its terms were kept a 
profound secret. The world could only guess its nature from 
the visits made by the tsar to France or by the French presi- 
dent to Eussia, and by the use of such phrases as " Friends and 
allies " in the speeches of president or tsar. This alliance acted 
as another " League of Peace," each ally endeavoring to restrain 
the other when a controversy arose which by bringing war upon 
one might involve the other. 

474. The Armenian Atrocities. — Although every European 
state endeavored to increase and perfect its army and navy as 
if it were about to attack its neighbors or expected to be attacked 
by them, the desire of all for continuance of peace steadily grew. 
This became evident when a new series of disorders and out- 
rages within the Turkish empire, from 1893 to 1896, failed to 
bring about a vigorous intervention by the "Great Powers." 
The Armenians had been bitterly disappointed that the promises 
of reform made by the sultan in 1878, and which Russia's oppo- 
nents had pretended to believe, had never been carried out. A 
revolutionary party hoped that if massacres like the Bulgarian 
atrocities were provoked, Europe would force the sultan to keep 




Eaat 40 from 



EGYPT AND THE SOUDAN 469 

his promises. The Austrians, without whose cooperation the 
western Powers could accomplish nothing, believed that the in- 
terests of the Powers themselves in any settlement of the 
Turkish question were so different that intervention was more 
likely to lead to war between European states than to relief of 
the Armenians. Consequently Europe watched in impotent 
horror the massacres in which more than twenty-five thousand 
Armenians perished. The English felt particularly humiliated, 
because but for English interference with Russia's plans in 1878 
the Armenians would have been under the protection of Russia. 
475. Egypt and the Soudan. — Neither Gladstone nor his 
successors had been able to keep, England's promise to with- 
draw her troops from Egypt without endangering not only the 
work that had been done, but also the route to India by way 
of the Suez Canal. They concluded to continue the work and 
to recover for Egypt the control of the Soudan lost in the in- 
surrection led by a Mohammedan fanatic named the Mahdi and 
by his successor the Kalifa. Preparations for the campaign 
of reconquest were completed by 1896. It was necessary to 
move forward at once if the Soudan was to be recovered, for 
other hands were already stretched out toward this important 
territory, which included the basin of the upper Nile and con- 
trolled the water supply of Egypt. On the east the king of 
Abyssinia had just asserted his independence of the Italians, 
who had established a colony on the Red Sea and who were 
friendly toward the English. On the west the French, under 
Colonel Marchand, were advancing, in order to add part of the 
upper Nile basin to the vast territories they held in the region 
of the Congo. The greatest difficulty was the lack of money, 
for several European governments besides England had a voice 
in the management of Egyptian finances, in order to insure the 
repayment of debts which a former khedive had contracted. 
These governments wished to keep England from gaining a 
firmer foothold in Egypt, and they declined to allow the use 
of the general reserve fund for war expenses. Consequently 
the English treasury was drawn upon for a part of the money. 



470 LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

When the advance began it was a campaign against the desert 
as much as against the Kalifa. One of the greatest triumphs 
was the building of a railway across the Nubian desert, a dis- 
tance of two hundred and thirty miles, saving a river journey 
of six hundred miles including the fourth cataract. The hardest 
fighting was in 1898. The forces of the Kalifa were twice de- 
feated and he was finally killed. Before the campaign was 
over the English commander, Sir Herbert Kitchener, steamed 
up the Nile to Fashoda where he found Colonel Marchand with 
a small body of Senegalese. Kitchener raised the British flag 
farther south and established one or two military posts in the 
neighborhood. The French government reluctantly consented 
to draw their frontier line west of the Nile basin. Since the 
English had paid part of the war expenses, it was decided that 
the Soudan should be under the joint rule of Egypt and Eng- 
land. This made England's position in the Nile Valley more 
secure. 

476. The Boer War. — Meanwhile in the far south a quarrel 
had broken out between the Boers of the South African Re- 
public, supported by the Orange Free State, and the British 
government over the rights of Englishmen who were mining 
gold at Johannesburg. The Boers concluded that the English 
were plotting to despoil them of their independence, and in 
October, 1899, began the war. The struggle outlived the 
century, but the British were victorious. With the excuse 
that the Boers had attempted to annex a portion of their terri- 
tory at the opening of the war, they used their victory to destroy 
the two republics and to bring all South Africa under the 
British flag. 

477. The End of the Spanish Colonial Empire. — While Eng- 
land was adding to her imperial domain, her ancient rival Spain 
lost the last remnants of a once splendid colonial empire. For 
years Cuba and the Philippines had been in a state of chronic 
insurrection. Spain attempted to preserve for her merchants 
the profits of Cuban trade, although the Cubans found in 
the United States the best market for the sale of their sugar 



THE FAR EAST 471 

and tobacco and the purchase of flour and machinery. A new 
rebellion broke out in 1895 and could not be suppressed with- 
out resorting to cruelties which shocked the people of the 
United States. While the American government was negotiat- 
ing with Spain, endeavoring to procure a change of policy, the 
United States ship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor. 
Although it was not proven that this was the work of the 
Spaniards, it so embittered the controversy that war between 
Spain and the United States ensued, April, 1898. The speedy 
victory of the Americans led to the recognition of Cuba as an 
independent state under the protection of the United States 
and the cession to the United States of Porto Eico and the 
Philippines. 

478. The Far East. — In 1900 the European states united 
in an expedition against Peking, where their legations were 
besieged by the Chinese. A Japanese force also accompanied 
the Europeans. This was the sequel of events which had been 
succeeding one another rapidly for several years. The first 
was a war between China and Japan for the control of Korea. 
When the Japanese were victorious they demanded the cession 
of the peninsula of Liao-Tung with the harbor of Port Arthur. 
At this the Eussians, supported by the Germans and the French, 
intervened, and the Japanese were obliged to content them- 
selves with Formosa. Shortly afterward came the cession to 
the Germans of Kiao-Chau, which was followed by the similar 
cession of Port Arthur to the Eussians. The Eussians had 
also obtained the right to continue the Trans-Siberian railway 
across northern Manchuria to the port of Vladivostock and to 
connect this road with Port Arthur. This growth of Eussian 
power alarmed the English who had long controlled European 
trade with China. They sought to guard their interests by 
leasing Wei-hai-wei, opposite Port Arthur and like it command- 
ing the entrance to the gulf of Pitchili. Foreign capitalists 
saw in this attempt of European states to partition the lands of a 
great but helpless people an opportunity to enrich themselves by 
building railways and developing China's natural resources. 



472 LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

The Chinese looked on, full of distrust and hatred. Unable 
to defend themselves, as had the Japanese, by reorganizing 
their own country and by becoming strong enough to be feared, 
they vented their fury upon missionaries, and attacked the 
foreign ambassadors in the legations at Peking. Partly because 
China was so helpless, the European states called the outbreak 
not a war but an insurrection led by a secret society named the 
Boxers, and after they had restored order demanded simply 
the punishment of the rebels and an indemnity for themselves. 
This was not the end of the affair, for the Chinese army had 
attacked the Russians on the Siberian frontier and the Russians 
in turn had occupied all Manchuria. A serious question re- 
mained for the new century to answer. The Japanese regarded 
the Russian occupation of Manchuria as endangering Korea, 
which they had delivered from Chinese influence and which 
they wished to open to their own trade, if not to their political 
control. 

479. Greater Europe. — Japan remained the only land not 
settled or controlled by Europeans or their descendants. The 
empire of European Christendom was thus far greater than had 
been the Roman Empire of the fourth century. Even Japan 
had accepted those features of European civilization which 
would enable her to increase her industrial wealth and arm 
herself effectively against the covetousness of other nations or 
to further her own ambitions. One advantage of so vast a 
domain was that Europe was not threatened, as was the Roman 
Empire, with attack from barbarous tribes who might look with 
eager desire upon the wealth that luxurious cities had amassed. 
Toward the close of the century the Tsar Nicholas II. of Russia 
publicly deplored the constant increase of armies and navies 
and urged the assemblage of a peace congress which should 
seek a remedy. Although his words were treated at first with 
ridicule, the Peace Congress met at The Hague in May, 1899. 
It resulted in the establishment of an international Court of 
Arbitration, where disputes, which in other days would have 
led to war, might be argued calmly before unprejudiced judges. 



THE ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY 473 

There still remained questions upon which the differences of 
nations were so great that they could be settled only through 
diplomacy or war. 

480. The Cost of New Europe. — The wars of the eighteenth 
and the nineteenth centuries had left in most European states 
a heavy debt for future generations to carry or to pay. In 
1900 the debt of France was equal to six billions of dollars, 
of Italy to two and a half billions, of England to three billions. 
Such debts in the eighteenth century would have led to bank- 
ruptcy. It was a much smaller burden that had brought on 
the French Revolution. And yet in each of these countries 
the burden has been borne cheerfully, because with the found- 
ing of representative government the expenditures have been 
decided upon or at least approved by the taxpayers, instead 
of being imposed by a distant and irresponsible group of court 
officials. 

481. The Organization of Industry. — The industrial revolu- 
tion substituting the factory system for the domestic system 
of manufacture had changed the relations of employer and 
employees. Employees were grouped together in large fac- 
tories, rarely knowing their employers, whereas under the old 
system they had lived and worked with them. The Revolution 
in France and the gradual change of laws in other countries 
had given greater freedom to employees. They could work 
where and for whom they pleased. They also could combine 
among themselves to force from their employers higher wages 
or better workshops. Some of this freedom the workmen gave 
up in order that they might unite for more effective action. 
Their associations were called trade-unions. As these multi- 
plied, the struggles between employer and employee by means 
of strikes became more frequent. Gradually it became cus- 
tomary in many trades for the employer to make a contract 
with the union instead of with individual workmen. This 
seemed to be a return, under another form, toward the re- 
stricted freedom granted to workmen under the old guild 
system of labor. The employers also, in their struggles with 



474 LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

one another to control the markets, united in larger companies 
or corporations, sometimes attempting to establish a monopoly 
of the whole industry or trade. This also was a step away 
from the new freedom conquered by the Revolution. There 
were signs of a different organization of industry, a combina- 
tion of capitalist and workman in cooperative production, in 
which the profits of the enterprise should be fairly distributed 
to all engaged in it. 

482. The Commonwealth of Peoples. — Although at the end 
of the centuries which separate us from the later Romans men 
are grouped into rival, almost hostile, nations, though within 
the same nation they struggle fiercely for the gains of industry 
or trade, there is a commonwealth to which more than ever 
before they all belong. Of this commonwealth the leaders are 
the great artists, the poets, the prophets of a higher ideal, the 
teachers of a better way to live. They are not, as in the days 
of Rome's fall, a little band, crowded back by the rising flood 
of barbarism. They have communicated to hosts of people 
some love of beauty and truth, and have inspired them with 
a generous resolution to hand down the heritage undiminished 
to the children of the coming time. Through the schools and 
the universities, through libraries and churches, civilization is 
now more effectively defended than long ago by the Roman 
legions encamped along the frontiers of the Rhine and the 
Danube. 

SUMMARY 

I. Politics in England, Germany, and France. — 1. England: 

(a) divisions among Gladstone's Home Rule party ; (&) why 
Gladstone, after the defeat of the bill in the Lords, did not appeal 
to the country ; loss of influence by the Liberal party. 2. Ger- 
many : (a) the Social Democratic party ; (b) the Agrarians ; 
(c) new colonial possessions. 3. France : (a) tariff policy ; 
(&) growth of socialist parties ; (c) Dreyfus case. 

II. International Politics. — 1. The Dual Alliance. 2. The Armenian 

massacres; the reason Europe did not intervene. 3. England 
in Egypt : (a) the necessity for the recovery of the Soudan ; 



SUMMARY 475 

(6) attitude of other powers ; (c) the Fashoda affair ; (d) result 
of the expedition. 4. The Boer war, its causes and its results. 
5. Spain loses Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. 6. The 
Boxer outbreak : (a) the reasons for Chinese hatred of foreign- 
ers ; (6) the attack on the legations at Peking and the relief 
expedition ; (c) the Russian-Japanese rivalry. 
III. The New Europe. — 1. Its extent. 2. Its means of settling contro- 
versies. 3. Public debts. 4. Changes in industrial life, combina- 
tions of laborers or of capitalists. 5. The outlook. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

1893. Defeat of Gladstone's second Home Rule bill. 

1898. Recovery of the Soudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army. War 

between United States and Spain. 
1900. Boxer outbreak in China. 

FURTHER STUDY 
General Reading: Fisher, Outlines of Universal History, 618-631. 
Paragraphs : — 

470. Home Rule again: Kendall, No. 133; see paragraphs 461, 468. 

471. Germany: Encyclopaedia Britannica, supplement, article "Ger- 

many.' ' 

472. French Politics: Seignobos, 216-221 ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 

supplement, "France." 

473. Dual Alliance: Seignobos, 828-831. 

474. Armenia: Encyclopaedia Britannica, supplement, "Armenia." 

475. Egypt : compare 466 and references ; Kendall, Nos. 148, 149, 150. 

476. The Boers : compare 468 and references ; see also previous his- 

tory of South Africa, 365. 

477. Spanish Colonial Empire: its history in 1825, in 1713, in the 

sixteenth century ; see paragraphs 403, 295, 191. 

478. Far East: Japanese war, Douglas, Ch. 16; Boxer outbreak, 

Douglas, Ch. 17 ; Reinsch, World Politics, part 2. 

479. Greater Europe : Reinsch, World Politics, part 1 ; Hague Tri- 

bunal : Reinsch, 22-23 ; Phillips, 544-545. 

480. Public Debts: Statesman'' s Year Book (annual). 

481. Industry: Cunningham, II., 254 ff. 

Additional Reading: Reinsch, World Politics; Douglas, Europe and 
the Far East. 



476 LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

Review, Chs. 25-30 ; period, 1815-1900 : unification of Italy and Ger- 
many, disintegration of the Turkish empire, development of 
colonial empires, organization of trade and industry, growth of 
parliamentary democratic government, betterment of the condi- 
tion of the common people. 

Special Reviews : — 
I. Geographical Changes. — 1. Prussian annexations. 2. Reorgani- 
zation of the German empire. 3. Alsace-Lorraine acquired for 
Germany. 4. Sardinia develops into the kingdom of Italy, Aus- 
tria loses Lombardy and Venetia, end of the States of the Church 
and of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. 5. Belgium established. 

6. Rumania, Servia, and Greece become independent kingdoms. 

7. New colonial possessions of England, France, and Germany ; 
Spain's loss of her colonial empire in America and the Philippines. 

II. Economic Changes. — 1. Industry : (a) development of factory 
system ; (b) laws regulating labor of women and children ; 
(c) workmen's insurance. 2. Trade : («) tendency in England 
toward repeal of Navigation Acts and reduction of tariffs ; 
(&) Prussian customs union ; (c) commercial treaties ; (d) high 
tariffs and trade conflicts. 3. Transportation : (a) roads in 
France and Germany ; (b) development of railways and tele- 
graphs. 4. Improvement of social conditions : («) abolition of 
slavery and serfdom ; (6) public education. 

III. Unification of Italy and Germany. — 1. The obstacle of Austria. 

2. Futile attempts in 1848. 3. The influence of the Prussian 
customs union. 4. The successes of Cavour and Victor Emman- 
uel, assisted by Napoleon III. 5. The policy of Bismarck and 
his management of the Schleswig-Holstein affair. 6. Prussia 
and Italy unite to attack Austria : result, North German Confed- 
eration, annexation of Venetia to Italy. 7. The Franco-Prussian 
war, the opportunity to complete German and Italian unity. 

IV. The conflicts in France over the organization of the central govern- 

ment. 
V. The reform movement in England, leading to parliamentary democ- 
racy and better social conditions. 



APPENDIX 



GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS 

This list contains the titles of books mentioned by author's name under 
" Further Study " and others convenient for reference or for further 
reading. The larger works mentioned in "Additional Reading" are not 
included. Books of special interest or utility are marked *. 

*Adams, G. B., Civilization During the Middle Ages. Scribners. 

♦Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation. Macmillan. 

Adams, G. B., and H. M. Stephens, Select Documents of English Consti- 
tutional History. Macmillan. 

Alzog, J., Universal Church History. 3 vols. Clarke. 

♦Andrews, C. M., Colonial Self-government. Harpers. 

Andrews, C. M., Historical Development of Modern Europe. Student's 
ed. Putnam s. 

♦Andrews, C. M., History of England. Allyn and Bacon. 

♦Archer, T. A., and C. L. Kingsford, The Crusades. Putnams. 

Archer, T. A., Crusade ofBichard I. (contemporary accounts). Putnams. 

Bain, R. N., Denmark and Scandinavia since 1513. Cambridge Univer- 
sity Press. 

Balzani, IL, The Popes and the Hohenstaufen. Longmans. 

Barry, W., The Papal Monarchy. Putnams. 

*Beazley, C. R., Prince Henry the Navigator. Putnams. 

Bkesly, E. S., Queen Elizabeth. Macmillan. 

♦Bemont, C, and G. Monod, Mediceval Europe, 395-1270. Holt. 

Besant, W., Gaspard de Coligny. American Book Co. 

Blok, P. J., History of the People of the Netherlands. 3 vols. Putnams. 

Bourinot, J. G., Canada under British Bule. Cambridge University Press. 

♦Bourne, E. G., Spain in America. Harpers. 

♦Bright, J. F., History of England. 5 vols. Longmans. 

Bright, J. F., Maria Theresa, Joseph II. Macmillan. 

Brown, H. F., Venetian Bepublic (Temple Primers). Macmillan. 

Brown, P. H., History of Scotland. 2 vols. Cambridge University Press. 

477 



478 GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS 

*Bryce, J., Holy Roman Empire. New ed. Macmillan. 

Bulfinch, T., Age of Chivalry. Lee and Shepard. 

Burke, U. R., History of Spain (to 1516). 2 vols. Longmans. 

*Bury, J. B., History of the Later Roman Empire. 2 vols. Macmillan. 

Cambridge Modem History (already published, The Renaissance, The 

Reformation, The Wars of Religion, The French Revolution). 

Macmillan. 
Carlyle, T., French Revolution. 3 vols. Fletcher ed., Putnams. Rose 

ed., Macmillan. 
Cesaresco, E. M., Cavour. Macmillan. 

Cesaresco, E. M., Liberation of Italy, 1815-1870. Scribners. 
*Cheyney, E. P., Social and Industrial History of England. Macmillan. 
*Cheyney, E. P., The European Background. Harpers. 
Chronicles of the Crusades. Bell. 
Church, A. J., Early Britain. Putnams. 
*Colby, C. W., Selections from the Sources of English History. 

Longmans. 
Compayre, G., Abelard. Scribners. 
*Cornish, F. W., Chivalry. Macmillan. 
Creighton, Louise, Duke of Marlborough. Longmans. 
*Creighton, M., Age of Elizabeth. Longmans. 
Creighton, M., Simon de Montfort. Longmans. 
Cunningham, W., Western Civilization. 2 vols. Cambridge University 

Press. 
Cunningham, W., and E. A. McArthur, Outlines of English Industrial 

History. Macmillan. 
Dill, Samuel, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Empire. 

Macmillan. 
Douglas, R. K., Europe and the Far East. Cambridge University Press. 
Droysen, G., Historischer Handatlas. 
Duffy, B., The Tuscan Republics. Putnams. 
Durham, F. H., English History illustrated from Original Sources, 

1S99-U85. Black. 
Duruy, V., Modem Times. Holt. 
Duruy, V., The Middle Ages. Holt. 

Egerton, H. E., Origin and Growth of English Colonies. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press. 
*Eginhard (Einhard), Life of Charlemagne. American Book Company. 
*Emerton, E., Erasmus. Putnams. 

*Emerton, E., Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. Ginn. 
*Emerton, E., Mediceval Europe. Ginn. 
*Eeilden, H. St. C, Constitutional History. Ginn. 



GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS 479 

Figgis, J. N., English History illustrated from Original Sources', 1660- 

1715. Black. 
*Firth, C, Oliver Cromwell. Putnams. 
Fisher, G. P., History of the Christian Church. Scribners. 
Fletcher, C„ R. L., Gustavus Adolphus. Putnams« 
*Fournier, A., Napoleon the First, eel. Bourne. Holt. 
Frazer, N. L., English History illustrated from Original Sources, 1307- 

1399. Black. 
Freeman, E. A., Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. Bury ed. 

Longmans. 
Freeman, E. A., Short History of the Norman Conquest. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press. 
Freeman, E. A., William the Conqueror. Macmillan. 
*Froissart, Lanier's Boifs Froissart. Scribners. 
*Fyffe, C. A., History of Modern Europe. One vol. ed. Holt. 
*Gardiner, B. M. (Mrs. S. R.), French Bevolution. Longmans. 
Gardiner, S. R., Oliver Cromwell. Longmans. 
*Gardiner, S. R., Puritan Bevolution. Longmans. 
Gardiner, S. R., School Atlas of English History. Longmans. 
*Gardiner, S. R., Students' 1 History of England. Longmans. 
Gardiner, S. R., Thirty Years' 1 War. Longmans. 

George, H. B., Genealogical Tables. Rev. ed. Oxford University Press. 
*Gibbins, H. DeB., History of Commerce in Europe. Macmillan. 
Gibbins, H. DeB., Industrial History of England. Scribners. 
Oilman, A., The Saracens. Putnams. 
Grant, A. J., The French Monarchy. 2 vols. Cambridge University 

Press. % 

Green, Mrs. J. R., Henry II. Macmillan. 
*Green, J. R., Short History of the English People. American Book 

Company. Illustrated ed. Harpers. 
Griffis, W. E., Child's History of Holland. Houghton, Mifflin. 
Gummere, F. B., Germanic Origins. Scribners. 
*Harrison, F., William the Silent. Macmillan. 
Harrison, W., Elizabethan England (Camelot series). Scott. 
Hassall, A., European History, 476-1871. Macmillan. 
Hassall, A., Louis XIV. Putnams. 
Hassall, A., The Balance of Power, European History, 1715-1789. 

Macmillan. 
Hausser, L., Period of the Beformation. American Tract Society. 
Headlam, J. W., Bismarck. Putnams. 

*Henderson, E. F., Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. Bell. 
*Henderson, E. F., Short History of Germany. 2 vols. Macmillan. 



480 GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS 

Henderson, E. F., Side Lights on English History. Holt. 

Higginson, T. Wo, and E. Channing, English History for Americans. 
Longmans. 

Hill, Mabel, Liberty Documents. Longmans. 

*Hodgkin, T. , Charles the Great. Putnams. 

Hodgkin, T., The Dynasty of Theodosius. Oxford University Press. 

*Hodgkin, T., Theodoric. Putnams. 

*Hume, M. A. S., Philip II. Macmillan. 

*Hume, M. A. S., Spain, its Greatness and Decay (from 1479). Cam- 
bridge University Press. 

Hunt, William, History of Italy. Macmillan. 

*Hunter, W. W., Short History of the Indian Peoples. Macmillan. 

Hutton, W. H., Philip Augustus. Macmillan. 

Jackson, S. M., Zwingli. Putnams. 

Jacobs, Joseph, Story of Geographical Discovery. Appleton. 

Jenks, Edward, The Australasian Colonies. Cambridge University 
Press. 

Jessopp, A., The Coming of the Friars. Putnams. 

Johnson, A. IL, The Normans in Europe. Longmans. 

* Johnson, A. H, Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Macmillan. 

Johnston, H. H., The Colonization of Africa. Cambridge University Press. 

*Jones, Guernsey, Civilization during the Middle Ages (selected 
sources). Ainsworth. 

Judson, H. P., Europe in the Nineteenth Century. Flood and Vincent. 

Keary, C. F., The Vikings in Western Christendom. Putnams. 

*Kendall, E. K., Source Book of English History. Macmillan. 

Kitchin, G. W., History of France. 3 vols. Oxford University Press. 

*K6stlin, J., Life of Luther. Scribners. 

Labberton, R. H, Historical Atlas. Silver, Burdett. 

Lane-Poole, Stanley, Speeches and Table-Talk of the Prophet Moham- 
med. Macmillan. 

*Laurie, William, Bise of the Universities. Appleton. 

Lavisse, E., Political History of Europe. Longmans. 

Lecky, W. E. H., The French Bevolution. ed. Bourne. Appleton. 

Lee, G. C, Source Book of English History. Holt. 

Lodge, P., The Close of the Middle Ages, 1273-1494. Macmillan. 

Lodge, R., History of Modern Europe. American Book Company. 

Longman, F. W., Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' 1 War, 
Longmans. 

*Lowell, A. L., Governments and Parties in Continental Europe. 2 vols. 
Houghton, Mifflin. 

Lowell, E. J., Eve of the French Revolution. Houghton, Mifflin 



GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS 481 

*Lo\vell, F. C, Joan of Arc. Houghton, Mifflin. 

Luther, Martin, Table Talk. Bohn. 

Mabie, H. W., Norse Stories. Dodd, Mead. 

McCarthy, Justin, The Epoch of Reform. Longmans. 

*Macy, Jesse, The English Constitution. Macmillan. 

Mahan, A. T., Influence of the Sea Power upon History. Little, Brown. 

Mahan, A. T., Influence of the Sea Power upon the French Revolutio?i 
and Empire. 2 vols. Little, Brown. 

Marco Polo, Travels, — in The Story of Marco Polo, by Noah Brooks. 
Century. 

Mombert, J. I., History of Chartes the Great. Appleton. 

Montague, F. C, Elements of English Constitutional History. Longmans. 

Moran, T. F., Theory and Practice of the English Government. Longmans. 

Morfill, W. R., Story of Poland. Putnams. 

Morfill, W. R., Story of Russia. Putnams. 

Morison, J. C, St. Bernard. Macmillan. 

Morley, J., Walpole. Macmillan. 

Morris, W. O'C, Ireland. Cambridge University Press. 

Muir, W., Life of Mohammed. Smith and Elder. 

Muller, W., Political History of Recent Times. American Book 
Company. 

Munro, D. C, and G. C. Sellery, Mediaeval Civilization. Century. 

Myers, P. V. N., The Middle Ages. Ginn. 

Myers, P. V. N., The Modern Age. Ginn. 

Newman, Manual of Church History. 2 vols. American Baptist Publi- 
cation Society. 

Oliphant, M. 0. W., Joan of Arc. Putnams. 

Oman, C. W. C, Byzantine Empire. Putnams. 

Oman, C. W. C, The Dark Ages. Macmillan. 

*Parkman, Francis, La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. 
Little, Brown. 

Parkman, Francis, Montcalm and Wolfe. Little, Brown. 

*Parkman, Francis, The Jesuits in North America. Little, Brown. 

*Payne, E. J., European Colonies. Macmillan. 

^Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of 
European History. 6 vols. Longmans. 

*Perkins, J. B., Richelieu. Putnams. 

*Perry, F., St. Louis. Putnams. 

Phillips, W. A., Modern Europe, 1815-1899. Macmillan. 

*Ploetz, Carl, Epitome of Universal History. Houghton, Mifflin. 

Probyn, J. W., Italy, 1815-1890. CasselL 

Putzger, Historischer Schul-Atlas. 



482 A BRIEF LIST OF BOOKS 

Rambaud, A., History of Russia. 3 vols. Estes. 

*Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History. Ginn. 

Rose, J. H., Century of European History. Scott. 

Rose, J. H., Napoleon I. 2 vols. Macmillan. 

*Rose, J. H., The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era. Cambridge Uni- 
versity Press. 

Rosebery, Lord, William Pitt. Macmillan. 

Sabatier, P. , St. Francis of Assist. Scribners. 

*Seebohm, F., The Protestant Revolution. Longmans. 

Seebohm, F., The Oxford Reformers. Longmans. 

*Seeley, J. R., The Expansion of England. Little, Brown, 

*Seignobos, C, Dow translation, The Feudal Regime. Holt. 

*Seignobos, C, Political History of Europe since 18 14, translated by 
Macvane. Holt. 

Skrine, F. H., The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900. Cambridge Uni- 
versity Press. 

Smith, J. H., The Troubadours at Home. Putnams. 

Southey, Robert, Life of Nelson. Cassell. 

Stephens, H. M., Europe, 1789-1815. Macmillan. 

Stephens, W. R. W., Hildebrand. Longmans. 

Stubbs, W., The Early Plantagenets. Longmans. 

*Sturgis, Russell, European Architecture. Macmillan. 

Symonds, J. A., A Short History of the Renaissance. Holt. 

*Thatcher, O. J., and E. H. McNeal, Source Book of Mediaeval His- 
tory. Scribners. 

Tout, T. F., Edward I. Macmillan. 

*Traill, H. D., William III. Macmillan. 

Vambery, A., Story of Hungary. Putnams. 

Wakeman, H. O., The Ascendency of France, 1598-1713. Macmillan. 

Walker, W., The Reformation. Scribners. 

Whitman, Sidney, Austria. Putnams. 

Willert, P. F., Henry of Navarre. Putnams. 

Wilson, Woodrow, The State. Holt. 



A BRIEF LIST OF BOOKS 

(Suggestions for a small library. Full titles and publishers' names in 
General List.) 

Atlas : — 

Labberton ($1.25), or Putzger (90 cts.). 



A BBIEF LIST OF BOOKS 483 

Selections from Contemporary Documents and Writings: — 

Robinson ($1.60), with Colby (#1.60) or Kendall (80 cts.), is the best 
combination. Briefer selection in Jones (40 cts.), or Pennsylvania 
Translations and Beprints, Vol. I., Nos. 1, 3, 4, Vol. II., Nos. 2, 
6, Vol. III., Nos. 1, 3, Vol. IV., Nos. 1, 3, 4, Vol. VI., Nos. 3, 5 (total 
$2.30). 

For General Reference, either of the following groups : — 

{Emerton, Introduction ($1.12) and dlediceval Europe ($1.50), 
Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages ($1.60), Duruy, Modern Times 
($1.60), Fyffe ($2.75). 
{Bemont and Monod ($1.60), Duruy, Modem Times, Rose, Bevo- 
lutionary and Napoleonic Era ($1.25), Seignobos, Political His- 
tory since 18 U ($3)- 
{ Periods of European History, 8 vols., by Oman, Tout, Lodge, 
{ Johnson, Wakeman, Hassall, Stephens, Phillips ($1.60 each). 
For England : — 

Green, Short History ($1.20), or Gardiner, Student's History ($3), 
Cheyney, Social and Industrial History ($1.40). 
Foil France : — 

Adams ($1.25), or Duruy ($2.00), 
For Germany: — 

Henderson ($4). 
For Industry, Commerce, Colonies : — 

Cunningham, Western Civilization, Vol. 2 ($1.25), Gibbins, History 
of the Commerce of Europe (90 cts.), Payne ($1.10), Jacobs 
(35 cts.). 
Epochs : — 

Middle Ages: Einhard (30 cts.), Archer and Kingsford ($1.50), 
Perry's St. Louis ($1.50), Sabatier's St. Francis ($2.50), Low- 
ell's Joan of Arc ($2.00). 
Renaissance: Symonds ($1.75). 

Protestant Revolution : Seebohm's Protestant Bevolution ($1), Kost- 
lin's Luther ($2.50), Creighton's Age of Elizabeth ($1), Hume's 
Philip II. (75 cts.). 
Puritan Revolution: Gardiner's Puritan Bevolution ($1), Firth's 

Cromwell ($1.50). 
French Monarchy : Perkins's Bichelieu ($1.50). 
French Revolution and nineteenth century : Mrs. Gardiner's French 
Bevolution ($1), Fournier's Napoleon ($2), Headlam's Bismarck 
($1.50), Cesaresco's Cavour (75 cts.). 



INDEX 

The pronunciation of difficult words is indicated by division into 
syllables, by the use of diacritical marks, or, in a few cases, by phonetic 
spelling. The following diacritical marks are used : a, as in fate ; a, as in 
fat; a, as in far ; e, as in meet; e, as in met; e, as in where; e, as in 
her ; I, as in pine; 1, as in pith ; i, as in marine ; 6, as in so ; 6 as in or ; 
6, as in confess; o, as in move; ti, as the German u and the French u; 
ch, as in German ; g, hard ; n, the French nasal. 

The dates of persons — in the case of popes, princes, or monarchs, of 
their reigns — are placed in parentheses. 



A-BOu-KiR, battle of, 358. 

Acadia, 282. 

Adrian ople, battle of, 17. 

A-e-tius (d. 454), 24-25. 

Afghanistan, 459. 

Africa, 1, 25, 31, 49, 111, 140, 176, 

191, 358, 459-460, 469-470. 
Agincourt (a-zhah-coor) , 159. 
Agrarian party, 466. 
Aids, feudal, 92, 137. 
Aistulf (749-756), 68. 
Aix-la-Chapelle (ax-la-shapel), or 
_ Aachen, 75; Peace of, 296, 297. 
Al-a-manni, 14. 
Al-ar-ic (d. 410), 21-22. 
Albigensian crusade, 137-138. 
Alcuin (al-kwin) (735-804), 75. 
Alexander VI., Pope (1492-1503), 

185. 
Alexander I., of Russia (1801-1825), 

369, 372, 378, 382, 393, 398. 
Alexander II., of Russia (1855- 

1881), 429, 458. 
Alexander of Parma, 219. 
Alexandria, 40, 49, 459. 
A-lex-ius I. Com-ne-nus, Emperor 

(1081-1118), 111, 112. 



Alfred the Great (871-901), 86-88. 

Algebra, 49. 

Al-sace, 24, 236, 352, 445. 

Al-va (1508-1582), 213, 214. 

America, discovery of, 87, 180. 

Am-i-ens (Fr. am-e-ah), Peace of, 

363, 365. 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 87. 
Anglo-Saxon conquest of England, 

27, 55, 56. 
Angora, 163. 
Anjou (ah-zho), 116. 
Annats, 157, 185. 
Anne, Queen (1702-1714), 278, 

284. 
Anne of Austria (1601-1666), 254. 
Anne Boleyn (1507-1536), queen of 

England, 200. 
Anselm (1033-1109), 114. 
Antioch, 109, 113. 
Antwerp, 221. 
Aqueducts, 5, 6. 
Aquinas (a-kwi-nas), Thomas 

(1225-1274), 170. 
Arabian civilization, 49-51, 123. 
Arabs, 46-51, 61, 123 ; see also 

Saracens, Moors. 



485 



486 



INDEX 



Aragon, 72, 109, 163, 179 ; see also 

Spain. 
Arbitration, court of, 472. 
Arcadius (395-408), 17, 21. 
Architecture, 5, 9, 32-33, 50, 77, 104, 

170, 171, 173, 181, 188, 196, 218, 

265. 
Arianisra, 7, 16, 27, 30. 
Aristotle, works of, 50, 170. 
Arkwright, Sir Richard (1732-1792), 

320. 
Armada, 217-218. 
Armed neutrality, 315. 
Armenian massacres, 468-469. 
Armies, 12-13, 74-75, 92, 153, 177, 

236, 248, 250, 295, 429, 449, 451. 
Arnold of Brescia, 128. 
Arthur, King, 27. 
Artois (ar-twa), count of, 391, 392 ; 

see also Charles X. 
Aspern, battle of, 374. 
Assiento, the, 283. 
Assignats (as-en-ya), 335-336, 343, 

359. 
Asturias, kingdom of, 72. 
Attila (d. 453), 24-25. 
Auerstadt, battle of, 371. 
Augsburg, confession, 195 ; Peace 

of, 199. 
Augustine, the theologian (354-430), 

4 ; the missionary (d. 604), 44. 
Augustus II., of Poland (1697-1733), 

281, 291. 
Augustus III., of Poland (1733- 

1763), 291. 
Austerlitz, battle of, 371. 
Austrasia, 55. 
Austria, origins, 100, 127, 148, 193- 

194 ; reformation in, 204, 210 ; 

Thirty Years' War, 232-233; 

united with Hungary, 276-277 ; 

the succession, 295-296 ; share 

of Poland, 308-309, 353; under 

Joseph II., 318-319; war with 

France, 341, 346, 347, 352; de- 
feated by General Bonaparte, 357, 



362-363 ; becomes an empire, 
369 ; wars with Napoleon, 369- 
371, 374, 379-380, 382 ; under 
Metternich, 390, 392-393, 399 ; in 
1848, 403-404, 406-413; rivalry 
with Prussia, 421-422, 434-438, 
442-443 ; in Italy, 424, 426-427 ; 
compromise with Hungary, 441 ; 
Eastern policy, 423, 454-456, 466, 
468. 

Avars, 72. 

Avignon (a-ven-yoh), 145, 157. 

Azov, 276, 279. 

Babylonian captivity, 145. 

Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), 218. 

Bacon, Koger (d. 1294), 170. 

Baden, 393, 437, 440. 

Bagdad, 109, 168. 

Bailly, J. S. (1736-1793), 329, 350. 

Balaclava, battle of, 424. 

Balboa, 180. 

Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 113. 

Balliol, John (1249-1315), 143. 

Bamberg, 209. 

Bank of ^England, 275, 288, 358-359. 

Baptists, 260. 

Barebone, Praise-God, 255. 

Barebone's parliament, 255. 

Barneveldt, J. Olden- (1547-1619), 

231. 
Basel, council of, 161 ; Peace of, 

353, 363. 
Bastille, 328-329. 
Bavaria, 209, 210, 232, 236, 295, 319, 

371, 377, 390, 393, 413, 437, 440, 

446. 
Bavarians, 55, 71, 84. 
Bazaine, Marshal (1811-1888), 444. 
Bede (d. 735), 75. 
Belgium, 24, 377, 398, 442, 466 ; see 

also Netherlands. 
Belisarius (d. 565), 31. 
Benedict (d. 543), 41-42. 
Benedictine Rule, 41-42. 
Benefices, 59, 75, 90. 



INDEX 



487 



Bengal, 304. 

Berlin, 302, 406-407, 410 ; Congress, 
456, 459, 460. 

Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153), 
127. 

Bible, 4, 16, 75, 157, 158, 186, 191. 

Bishops, 7, 10, 38-39, 71, 91, 106- 
109, 155-156, 161, 185, 209, 210, 
363, 450. 

Bismarck, Prince Otto von (1815- 
1898), 429, 430, 434-440, 442, 443, 
445, 446, 449, 450, 459, 460. 

Black Death, 153. 

Black Prince, the, 153. 

Blake, Admiral (1598-1657), 254, 
259. 

Blenheim, battle of, 278. 

Bliicher, Marshal (1742-1819), 381. 

Boers, 462, 470. 

Boethius, 30. 

Bohemia, 63, 100, 149, 193, 232- 
233, 236, 295, 318, 399, 406, 408. 

Bohemond (d. 1111), 112, 113. 

Bologna, university of, 128, 169. 

Bombay, 296. 

Bonaparte, Jerome (1784-1860), 
372; Joseph (1768-1844), 371, 
374 ; Louis (1778-1846), 372; Na- 
poleon, see Napoleon. 

Boniface VIII. , Pope (1294-1303), 
144-145. 

Boniface (d. 755), 44-45, 67. 

Bordeaux (bor-do), 4, 350; Na- 
tional Assembly, 445. 

Bosnia, 422, 454, 458. 

Bossuet, Bishop (1627-1704), 265. 

Bosworth, battle of, 178. 

Both well, earl of (d. 1578), 216. 

Bourbons, in France, 219 ff., 259 ff. ; 
in Spain, 277 ff. ; in Naples, 291- 
292. 

Boxer outbreak, 471. 

Boyne, battle of the, 274. 

Braddock, General (1695-1755), 301. 

Brandenburg, mark of, 100, 127 ; 
electorate of, 149, 210, 229, 232, 



236, 264-265, 268; elector be- 
comes king of Prussia, 278 ; see 
also Prussia. 

Brazil, 278, 374. 

BrCtigny (bra-ten-yi), Peace of, 154. 

Brill, 214. 

Britain, see England. 

Brittany, 86, 177. 

Bruce, Robert (1306-1329), 143. 

Bruges (briizh), 121, 221. 

Brumaire, the 18th, 361. 

Brunehaut (brune-o) (d. 613), 54. 

Buckingham, duke of (1592-1628), 
241. 

Buda, 275. 

Bulgaria, 60, 61, 63, 100, 101, 162, 
395, 455-456. 

Bundesrath, 440. 

Burgoyne, General (d. 1792), 314. 

Burgundians, 14, 24, 27. 

Burgundy, kingdom, duchy, county, 
83-84 ; duchy, 177 ; county 
(Franche-ComtS), 208, 295. 

Burke, Edmund (1729-1797), 307, 
341. 

Burmah, 425. 

Burns, Robert (1759-1796), 341. 

Byzantine P:mpire, 60, 63, 73, 101, 
111, 138-139, 162-163; see also 
Boman Empire. 

Cabinet, English, 275, 292-295. 

Cabot, John, 180. 

Cahiers (kah-ya), 326. 

Calcutta, 296, 304. 

Caliphate, of Bagdad, 51, 109; of 

Cordova, 109. 
Calonne (1734-1802), 320. 
Calvin, John (1509-1564), 196-197. 
Calvinists, 211, 215-216, 231, 236, 

242, 265. 
Cammin, bishopric of, 265. 
Camperdown, battle of, 358. 
Campo Formio, Peace of, 357. 
Canada, 274, 301. 
Canning, George (1770-1827), 394. 



488 



INDEX 



Canon law, 37, 130-131. 

Canossa, 109. 

Canterbury, 44. 

Cape of Good Hope, 180. 

Capet, Hugh, 86, 115. 

Carcassonne, 23, 121. 

Cardinals, college of, 107. 

Carlos, Don, 291. 

Cartwright, Edmund (1743-1823), 
320. 

Castile, 72, 109, 163, 179. 

Castles, 95, 96, 123, 124, 136. 

Cathedrals, 104, 170, 171, 365. 

Catherine, of Aragon (1485-1536), 
194 ; de' Medici (1519-1589), 211- 
212, 214; II. of Russia (1762- 
1796), 308-309, 319, 342, 346, 348. 

Catholics, in England, 217, 230, 252, 
264, 269, 387, 388, 454 ; in France, 
461, 468 ; in Germany, 442, 450 ; 
in Italy, 453. 

Cavaliers, 248. 

Cavour, count di (1810-1861), 425- 
427, 428. 

Caxton, William (d. 1491), 175. 

Celtic language, 4. 

Chalons (sha-loh), 25. 

Chambord (sham-bor), count of 
(1820-1883), 451, 452. 

Champ de Mars, affair of, 337-338. 

Champlain (1567-1635), 227. 

Charlemagne, 69-77. 

Charles I., of the Empire (Charle- 
magne, 768-814), 69-77 ; II. (the 
Bald, 875-877), 78; IV. (1347- 
1378), 149; V. (1519-1556), 179, 
190-191, 193-195, 198-199, 212- 
213; VI. (1711-1740), 277, 281, 
290-291,295; England: I. (1625- 
1649), 241-252 ; II. (1660-1685), 
256, 259-264, 268; France: III. 
(the Simple, 898-923), 88; V. 
. (1364-1380), 154, 158 ; VI. (1380- 
1422), 158, 159 ; VII. (1422-1461), 
159-160, 161, 176-177 ; VIII. (1483- 
1498), 177 ; IX. (1560-1574), 211, 



214; X. (1824-1830), 396-397; 
Sardinia: Charles Albert (1831- 
1849), 403, 408, 409, 411-412; 
Spain: II. (1665-1700), 274, 277; 
Sweden: XII. (1697-1718), 279, 
280-281. 

Charles of Anjou (1220-1285), 139, 
163, 177. 

Charles the Bold (1433-1477), 177. 

Charles Martel (d. 741), 45, 66. 

Chartists, the, 415. 

Chaucer (1340-1400), 170, 175. 

China, 471-472. 

Chlodwig (Clovis, 481-511), 27-28. 

Christianity, spread of, 5-7, 16, 37, 
44-45, 71, 87, 88, 100, 101. 

Chry-s51-o-ras (d. 1415), 173. 

Church, organization, 5-7, 38-39, 
106-107, 130-131, 156, 160-161, 
205-206; and State, 38, 39, 75, 
114, 127, 128, 130-132, 161, 185, 
195, 199, 200, 267, 352, 362, 391, 
450, 461, 469; property, 38, 39, 
59, 68, 69, 71, 91, 106, 143, 144, 

192, 195, 232, 234, 340, 363, 391, 
420 ; councils, 7, 40, 160-161, 204, 
207, 450 ; condition in fourteenth 
century, 155-157 ; attempt to re- 
form, 160-161 ; causes of revolt 
in, 185, 186-187 ; reorganization 
after Reformation, 204-208 ; see 
also Papacy. 

Cisalpine Republic, 357, 368. 
Cities, 5, 13, 38, 120-121, 123-128, 

149-150. 
Civil constitution of the clergy, 336. 
Clement VII., Pope (1523-1534), 

193, 194. 

Clermont, assembly at, 112. 
Cleves, duchy of, 230, 232, 265. 
Clive, Robert (1725-1774), 304. 
Clovis, see Chlodwig. 
Cluny, reform party, 107, 122. 
Cnut (1014-1035), 101-102. 
Code, Justinian's, 31 ; the French, 
362, 377. 



INDEX 



489 



Colbert (kol-ber) (1619-1683), 261, 
263, 266-267. 

Colet (1466-1519), 187. 

Coligny (1517-1572), 212-214. 

Cologne, 149, 209-210. 

Coloni, 11, 12, 14, 59, 92. 

Colonies, European, 176, 180, 208, 
217, 225-227, 243-244, 262, 274, 
283, 292, 296-297, 299-301, SOS- 
SOS, 306-307, 314-316, 375, 394- 
395, 425, 469-471. 

Columbus (d. 1506), 180. 

Committee of Public Safety, French, 
348-350. 

Commons, House of, 142-143, 178, 
241-243, 245-247, 252, 275, 292- 
294, 399, 455. 

Commune of 1871, the Paris, 445- 
446. 

Communes, see Towns or Cities. 

Compass, mariner's, 174, 176. 

Concordat, of Worms, 114 ; of 
Vienna, 161 ; of 1516, 185, 336 ; 
of 1802, 362. 

Conde"s (koii-das), the, 212, 254. 

Confederation of the Rhine, 372, 
376-377. 

Congregationalists, 243, 250. 

Conradin, 139. 

Conservatives, the English, 454. 

Constance, council of, 160-161. 

Constantinople, 32, 40, 44, 61, 68, 
138, 162, 163, 422, 423, 455, 459. 

Constituent assembly, 327-331, 334- 
338, 362. 

Constitutions, new, France, 331, 338, 
346, 352, 361, 391, 415, 451-452 ; 
Germany, 392-393, 411-412, 421, 
438-439 ; Italy, 404 ; Austria- 
Hungary, 441. 

Consulate, the, 361-364. 

Continental blockade, 372-373, 375, 
'378, 389. 

Convention, the French, 336, 345- 
350, 352, 362. 

Coote, Eyre (1726-1783), 304. 



Copenhagen, 373. 

Cordelier Club, 333. 

Cordova, 50, 109. 

Corn Laws, 399, 415. 

Corneille (kor-nay), (1606-1684), 

265. 
Cortez (1485-1547), 208. 
Corve"e (kor-va), the, 313. 
Count, office of, 8, 57, 58, 74, 84. 
Courts of law, 5, 15-16, 89, 92, 104, 

130-131, 144, 268-269, 331. 
Cranmer, Archbishop (1489-1556), 

199. 
Cre"cy (kres-e), 153. 
Crimean War, 423-425. 
Croatians, 406, 407-408, 441. 
Crompton, Samuel (1753-1827), 

320. 
Cromwell, Oliver (1599-1658), 248- 

256, 259. 
Crusades, 110-114, 123, 127, 135, 

137, 138, 140. 
Cuba, 276, 470-471. 
Customs Union, 390, 421-422. 
Cyprus, 456. 
Cyril (d. 869 [?]), 100. 
Czechs (cheks), 63. 

Danegeld, 101. 

Danes, 85-88, 101, 102. 

Dante (1265-1321), 170. 

Danton, G. J. (1759-1794), 333, 

343, 346, 349-350. 
Dantzig, 348. 

Dardanelles, the, 422, 455. 
Dark Ages, the, 34, 66. 
Darnley, Lord, 216. 
Dauphine' (clo-fe-na), 84, 177. 
Debts, public, 275, 289, 305, 322, 

359, 377, ,387, 473. 
Declaration of Indulgence, English, 

264, 269. 
Declaration of Rights, English, 270 ; 

French, 330. 
Defensor, the, 10. 
De Grasse, see Grasse. 



490 



INDEX 



Denmark, 87, 101, 192, 280-281, 
373-374, 382, 408, 435-436. 

Departments of France, 333-334. 

Desiderius (756-774), 69. 

D'Estaing, see Estaing. 

Detroit, 299. 

De Witt, John (d. 1672), 253, 264. 

Diocletian (284-305), 9. 

Directory, French, 352 ; overthrow 
of, 360-361. 

Dissenters, 260, 264, 275, 388. 

Domesday Book, 104. 

Domestic system, 227, 320, 388, 
390, 391. 

Dominicans, 138. 

Dragonnades, 267. 

Drake, Sir Francis (d. 1596), 217. 

Dresden, battle of, 379. 

Dreyfus case, 468. 

Dual Alliance, 459, 468. 

Duke, office of, 8, 15, 57, 84, 85. 

Dumouriez, General (1739-1823), 
346, 347. 

Dunbar, battle of, 253. 

Dupleix (dli-pla), Francois (1697- 
1764), 296-297, 299-300. 

Duquesne, Fort, 299, 301. 

Dutch, revolt of, 213-216; inde- 
pendence, 220 ; colonies, 225, 226 ; 
politics, 231 ; Thirty Years' War, 
233 ; rivalry with English, 253, 
262, 264 ; and Louis XIV., 262- 
264, 277 ; policy, 290, 315 ; and 
revolutionary France, 347, 358, 
372, 377-; and Belgium, 382, 398 ; 
see also Holland, Netherlands. 

Earl, the title, 102. 

East India Company, English, 226, 

296-297, 425; French, 226, 289, 

296-297, 300. 
East Rumelia, 456, 460. 
Edward I., king of England (1272- 

1307), 142-143; III. (1327-1377), 

152-154; IV. (1461-1483), 178; 

VI. (1547-1553), 198, 199. 



Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), 
102, 103. 

Egbert (802-837), 56. 

Egypt, 49, 135, 140, 358, 396, 423, 
459, 469-170. 

Einhard, 73. 

Elba, 379. 

Eleanor of Aquitaine, 116. 

Electors of the empire, 148-149. 

Eliot, Sir John (1592-1632), 243. 

Elizabeth, Queen (1558-1603), 200, 
210-211, 214, 216-218, 228. 

Elizabeth, Tsarina (1741-1762), 301. 

Elizabeth Farnese, 290-292. 

Emigres (am-e-gra), the French, 
331-332, 338, 342. 

Enclosures, 320, 454. 

England, origins, 2, 21, 27, 55-57 ; 
under Alfred, 86-88 ; Norman 
Conquest, 101-104 ; under Wil- 
liam I., 104; Henry II., 116, 
129-132 ; Richard I. and John, 
135-137 ; Henry III., 141-142 ; 
Edward I., 142-114 ; Hundred 
Years' War, 152-153, 157-160; 
Peasants' Revolt, 154-155; Wye- 
liffe, 157 ; Wars of Roses, 178 ; 
Reformation, 194-195, 198, 199, 
200; age of Elizabeth, 210-211, 
216-219; under James I., 227- 
228, 230-231 ; Puritan revolu- 
tion, 241-253, 254-256; Restora- 
tion, 256, 259-260, 262, 263, 264, 
269-270 ; Revolution of 1688, 270, 
274-275 ; King William's and 
Queen Anne's War, 274, 278, 281- 
284; under George I., 290-294; 
Seven Years' War, 300-301, 303- 
305; colonies, 226-227, 306-307, 
314-316; industrial changes, 227, 
319-321 ; and the French Revolu- 
tion, 312, 347, 351, 353 ; Napole- 
onic wars, 358, 368-369, 372-373, 
374-375, 377 ; War of 1812, 378 ; 
in 1815, 387-388 ; reform of 1832, 
399 ; in 1848, 415-416 ; 423-425 ; 



INDEX 



491 



reforms in, 453-454 ; policy in the 

East, 454, 455, 456, 459 ; in Egypt. 

459, 469-470 ; last decade, 464- 

466, 469, 470, 473. 
Erasmus (1467-1536), 181, 185-187. 
Estaing (es-taii), count d' (1729- 

1794), 314. 
Eugene, Prince (1663-1736), 278, 280. 
Eugene de Beauharnais (1781- 

1824), 377. 
Eugenie (e-zha-ne), Empress, 442. 
Exarchate, 32, 69. 

Factory system, 320, 388, 390, 391, 
473. 

Fairs, 123. 

Family Compact, the, 291, 304. 

Fawkes, Guy, 230. 

Federates, German foederati, 14, 16- 
17, 21, 28. 

Ferdinand I., of Germany (1556- 
1564), 208; II., of Styria (1619- 
1637), 232-234; V., II. of Ara- 
gon (1474-1516), 178, 179; VII., 
of Spain (1808-1833), 394. 

Feudal system, 89-97, 99, 106, 115, 
120, 329-330. 

Fiefs, 90, 91. 

Finland, 88, 281, 372, 382, 458. 

Flanders, 24, 134. 

Florence, 173. 

Florida, 316. 

Fontanet, battle of, 78. 

Fouquet (foo-ka) (1615-1680), 266. 

Fourth Crusade, 138-139. 

Fox, C. J. (1749-1806), 372. 

France, origins, 3, 4, 5, 21, 22-25, 
26-28, 53-55, 56 ; age of Charle- 
magne, 66 ff. ; Verdun, 78 ; feudal 
period, 83, 84, 85-86, 88, 96 ; early 
Capetians, 114-116; rise of the 
towns, 125-127 ; Louis VII., 129 ; 
Philip II., 134-138, 140; Louis 
IX., 140-141 ; Philip IV., 143-145 ; 
Hundred Years' War, 150-154, 158- 
160 ; Pragmatic Sanction, 161 ; uni- 



versities, 168, 169 ; consolidation 
under Charles VII. and Louis XL, 
176-178 ; under Francis I. and 
Henry II., 185, 187, 190, 193, 194, 
195-196, 198, 200 ; religious wars, 
211-212, 214-215, 219-221 ; Henry 
IV., 226, 227, 228-230 ; Richelieu, 
233-234, 235, 236, 237, 242; 
Fronde, 254 ; under Louis XIV., 
259-284 ; the Regency, 288-290 ; 
Louis XV., 291, 295, 296-297; 
Seven Years' War, 300-301, 302, 
303-305 ; eve of the Revolution, 
312-316, 321-323 ; Revolution, 
326-338, 341-353 ; Directory, 356- 
361 ; Consulate and Empire, 361- 
366 ; 368-382 ; Restoration, 390- 
392, 393, 394 ; Revolution of 1830, 
396-398 ; Revolution of 1848, 405- 
406, 409; Second Empire, 413- 
415, 434, 441-444; Franco-Prus- 
sian War, 442-445 ; Commune, 
446; after 1871, 451-452, 459; 
last decade, 461, 470, 473. 

Franche-Comte (fronsh-k6n-ta), 84, 
264. 

Francis, of Lorraine, Emperor (1745- 
1765), 295, 296; II. (1792-1835), 
342, 369, 371, 374, 399; I., of 
France (1515-1547), 185, 190, 191, 
193, 194, 195, 198; II. (1559- 
1560), 211. 

Francis Joseph, Emperor (1848- 

), 410, 41 1, 412, 435, 436, 437, 

441, 453, 459. 

Franciscans, 138. 

Franco-Prussian War, 442-445, 451. 

Frankfort, 438 ; parliament, 410-411. 

Franks, 14, 24, 27-28, 49, 53-55, 
66 ff. ; see also France. 

Frederick I., Barbarossa, Emperor 
(1152-1190), 127-129, 135; II. 
(1215-1250), 139, 140; II., of 
Prussia (1740-1786), 301-303, 305, 
308-309, 316-318; III. (1888), 
438, 461. 



492 



INDEX 



Frederick, elector of Saxony (1486- 
1525), 188; Elector Palatine (1610- 
1632), 232. 

Frederick William, the Great Elec- 
tor (1640-1688), 264-265; L, of 
Prussia (1713-1740), 294-295 ; II. 
(1786-1797), 342,346 ; III. (1797- 
1840), 375, 379, 392; IV. (1840- 
1861), 406-407, 410, 411. 

Free cities, of Germany, 149-150, 
175, 192, 363. 

French language, 5, 76, 78, 170. 

French Revolution, 326-338, 341- 
353. 

Friedland, battle of, 371. 

Froben, 186. 

Froissart (1337-1410), 170. 

Fronde, 254. 

Fructidor, 18th, 360. 

Gaillard (ga-ya), chateau, 136. 

Gambetta (1838-1882), 444. 

Garibaldi (1807-1882), 427-428, 442. 

Genet, E. C. (1765-1834), 351. 

Genoa, 123, 150, 290, 382. 

George I., of England (1714-1727), 
284, 292 ; III. (1760-1820), 307. 

German empire, 446, 449-450, 460- 
461, 466, 468. 

German language, 16, 78. 

German-Roman Empire, see Holy 
Boman Empire. 

Germany, origins, 14-17, 63, 78, 
84-85 ; Holy Roman Empire, 85, 
104-106 ; quarrel with the papacy, 
108-109, 114 ; cities, 125, 149-150, 
175 ; Frederick Barbarossa, 127- 
129 ; Frederick II., 139 ; after the 
Great Interregnum, 148-150 ; Re- 
naissance, 174 ; Reformation, 188- 
195, 198-199 ; Catholic restoration, 
204, 209-210 ; Thirty Years' War, 
231-236 ; French wars, 273, 295, 
296, 301, 302 ; and the French 
Revolution, 341, 342, 346, 353; 
reorganization by Napoleon, 363, 



371-372, 376, 377 ; wars of Liber- 
ation, 379, 382 ; after 1815, 389- 
390, 392-393; in 1848, 403-404, 
406-413 ; rivalry of Prussia and 
Austria, 434-438, 440 ; war with 
France, 442-445 ; empire, 446, 
449-450, 460-461, 466, 468. 

Ghent, 120, 221 ; Pacification of , 215. 

Gibraltar, 283, 315, 316. 

Gimignano, San, 172. 

Girondins, 346, 348-349, 350. 

Gladstone, W. E. (1809-1898), 454, 
461-462, 464-465. 

Godfrey of Bouillon (1061-1100), 
112-113. 

Gold, 227. 

Golden Bull of 1356, 149. 

Gothic architecture, 170, 365. 

Granada, 163, 179. 

Grand Remonstrance, 247. 

Grasse, count de (1723-1788), 316. 

Gravelotte, battle of, 444. 

Great Charter, 137. 

Great Interregnum, 139, 148. 

Greek Empire, see Byzantine Em- 
pire and Boman Empire. 

Greek, language, 3-5, 30, 31, 60, 61, 
173 ; Church, 101 ; Testament, 
186. 

Greeks, 309, 423 ; independence of, 
395-396. 

Gregory I., the Great (590-604), 43- 
44 ; VII. (1073-1085), 107-109. 

Grevy (gra-ve), President (1807- 
1891), 453. 

Guilds, 125, 227, 314, 331. 

Guises, the, 210, 212, 214, 219. 

Guizot (ge-zo), F. P. G. (1787-1874), 
396, 404, 405. 

Gunpowder Plot, 230. 

Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632), 
235-236. 

Gutenberg, 174. 

Habeas Corpus Act, 268, 351. 
Hague Peace Tribunal, the, 472. 



INDEX 



493 



Haider Ali, 315. 

Halberstadt, bishopric of, 265. 

Hampden, John (1594-1643), 244, 
248. 

Hanover, 301, 371, 390, 413, 437, 
438. 

Hanseatic League, 149-150. 

Hapsburgs, 148, 193-194, 276. 

Hardenberg, Prince (1750-1822), 
376. 

Hargreaves (d. 1778), 320, 377. 

Harold (1022-1066, k. 1066), 103- 
104. 

Hastings, battle of, 104. 

Hastings, Warren (1732-1818), 315. 

Havana, 304, 471. 

Heads of Proposals, 251. 

Henrietta Maria (1609-1669), 242- 
248. 

Henry L, of England (1099-1135), 
116; II. (1154-1189), 116, 129- 
132; III. (1216-1272), 141-142; 
IV. (1399-1413), 158; V. (1413- 
1422), 114, 159 ; VII. (1485-1509), 
178 ; VIII. (1509-1547), 179, 192, 
194-195; II., of France (1547- 
1559), 198, 200, 210 ; III. (1574- 
1589), 219 ; IV. (1589-1610), 214, 
219-221, 227, 228-229; I., the 
Fowler, of Germany (919-936), 
85, 89, 125 ; III. (1039-1056), 105- 
106; IV. (1056-1106), 108-109; 
VI. (1190-1197), 135, 139. 

Henry the Navigator, Prince (1394- 
1460), 176. 

Her-ze-go-vi'na, 422, 454, 458. 

Hesse-Cassel, 440. 

Hesse-Darmstadt, 438. 

High Commission, Court of, 246. 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 363. 

Holland, province of, 231, 253 ; see 
also Dutch and Netherlands. . 

Holstein, 408, 435-436, 438. 

Holy Alliance, 393-394. 

Holy Roman Empire, 104-105, 139, 
148-150, 371. 



Holy Sepulchre, 109, 111, 113. 

Holy Synod, 279. 

Home Rule, 461, 464-466. 

Ho-no-rius (395-423), 17, 22. 

House of Commons, see Commons. 

Hrolf, 88. 

Hubertsburg, Treaty of, 305. 

Hudson, Henry (d. 1611), 226. 

Hugh Capet (987-996), 86, 115. 

Huguenots, 211-212, 214-215, 219- 

221, 233-234, 267-268. 
Humanists, 173-174, 193. 
Hundred Years' War, 152-155, 157- 

160. 
Hungarians, 101. 
Hungary, 88-89, 101, 193, 236, 276, 

318, 399-400, 403, 406-408, 410- 

413, 441. 
Huns, 16, 24-25. 
Huss, John (d. 1415), 161, 169. 
Hyde, Edward (1608-1674), earl of 

Clarendon, 259-260. 

Images in churches, 68. 

Immunity, 57-58, 89. 

Index, 206. 

India, 226, 299-300, 304, 305, 358, 

425, 455. 
Indies, 180. 

Indulgences, 187-189, 206. 
Industrial revolution, 227, 320-321, 

387-391. 
Inkerman, battle of, 424. 
Innocent III. (1198-1216), 136, 137, 

138. 
Inquisition, 138, 179, 206, 213, 

221. 
Insurance, workmen's, 460-461. 
Investiture conflict, 106-109. 
Ireland, 43, 44, 45, 132, 245, 247, 

252, 275-276, 315, 359, 399, 415- 

416, 454, 461, 464-466. 
Irene, Empress (d. 803), 73. 
Isabella of Castile (1474-1504), 179- 

180. 
Italian language, 5. 170. 



494 



IXDEX 



Italy, early, 26, 31, 57, 60, 68-69, 
84, 96 ; the towns, 123, 125, 127- 
128 ; Renaissance. 169, 172-174 ; 
French invasion of, 177-178, 
185 ; struggle of Charles V. and 
Francis I., 190-191, 193-194; 
Valtelline, 233 ; decay of Spanish 
power in, 277, 283, 290-291 ; in 
1796, 357 ; under Napoleon, 363, 
368, 371-372, 382 ; in 1848, 403- 
404, 407-409, 411-413; kingdom 
of, 420-421, 425-428, 437-438, 
442-444, 453, 459. 466, 468, 473. 

Ive (eve), of Chartres, 114. 

Jacobin Club, 333, 346. 

Jacobins, 349, 350. 

Jacobites, 284. 

Jacquerie, 154. 

James I., of England (1603-1625), 

216, 219, 228; II. (1685-1688), 

263, 264, 268, 269-270, 274, 277. 
James III., the Old Pretender (1688- 

1765), 277, 284. 
Japan, 471, 472. 
Java, 226. 

Jeanne d'Arc, 159-160. 
Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826), 341, 

364. 
Jeffreys, Judge (1648-1689), 269. 
Jellacic (yel'la-kik) , Colonel (1801- 

1859), 406, 407, 408, 410. 
Jena (ya'na), battle of, 371. 
Jerome, St. (d. 420), 4, 72. 
Jerusalem, 48, 113. 
Jesuits, 206, 208, 210. 
Jews, 265. 
John, king of England (1199-1216), 

135-136; of France (1350-1364), 

153. 
Joseph II., of Austria (1765, 1780- 

1790), 316-319, 332. 
Josephine, the Empress (1763-1814), 

374. 
Juliers, 230, 232. 
Justice, see Courts. 



Justinian (527-565), 30-34. 

Kaaba (ka'ba), 46. 

Kainardji, Treaty of, 309. 

Kalifa, the, 469-470. 

Karlowitz, Peace of, 276. 

Karnatik, the, 300. 

Kaskaskia, 301. 

Kiao-Chau, 466. 

Kiel ship canal, 466. 

Kitchener, General, 470. 

Klopstock, F. G. (1724-1803), 341. 

Koniggratz (ke'nig-grets), 437. 

Koran, 47. 

Korea, 472. 

Kosciuszko (kos-i-us'ko) (1746- 

1817), 353. 
Kossuth (kosh'ot) (1802-1894), 

406, 412. 
Kotzebue, 393. 
Kulturkampf, 450. 

Lafayette (1757-1834), 314, 329, 

331, 333, 341, 343, 361, 396-397. 
La Fontaine (1621-1695), 265. 
Lancastrians, 178. 
Land, 24, 29, 59, 90, 95, 320, 330, 

375, 429 ; Irish Land Act, 454. 
Language, 3-5, 24, 30, 31, 76, 

170. 
Laon (Ion), 126. 
La Rochelle, 234, 243. 
Latin, 3-5, 30, 31, 60-61, 87, 171- 

172. 
Laud, William (1573-1645), 243, 

246. 
Law, 5, 29, 31, 37, 73-74, 128, 131- 

132, 137, 169, 362. 
Law, John (1671-1729), 289. 
Law of Guarantees, 453. 
Lefevre (le-favr), Jacques (d. 1537), 

187, 189, 192, 193, 196. 
Legislative Assembly, 336, 338, 

342-343. 
Legnano (len-ya-no), 128. 
Leipsic, battle of, 379. 



INDEX 



495 



Leo I., Pope (440-461), 25; IX. 

(1049-1054), 107 ; X. (1513- 

1521), 188-190. 
Leo, the Isaurian (717-741), 68. 
Leopold, Emperor, I. (1658-1705), 

273, 276; II. (1790-1792), 337, 

342; I., of Belgium (1831-1865), 

398. 
Leopold, prince of Hohenzollern- 

Sigmaringen, 442, 443. 
Leuthen (loi'ten) , battle of, 303. 
Liberals, English, 454, 461, 466. 
Liberal-Unionists, 461, 466. 
Ligny (len-ye), battle of, 381. 
Lisbon, 226. 

Lithuania, 161, 309, 348, 458. 
Lollards, 157. 

Lombards, 31-32, 57, 60, 68, 69. 
Lombardy (Milanese), 290, 427. 
London, 3, 87, 262. 
Long Island, battle of, 314. 
Long Parliament, 245 ff. 
Loom, power, 320. 
Lords, 74-75, 89. 
Lorraine, 24, 83, 291, 445. 
Lothair, 78. 
Lotharingia, 82-84. 
Loubet (lu-ba), President, 468. 
Louis, the Pious (814-840), 77-78 ; 

VI. of France, (1108-1137), 116 ; 

VII. (1137-1180), 116, 127, 129; 
IX. (1226-1270), 140-141 ; XI. 
(1461-1483), 177; XII. (1498- 
1515), 178; XIII. (1610-1643), 230, 
242, 259 ; XIV. (1643-1715), 259- 
284, 288 ; XV. (1715-1774), 302- 
303, 306 ; XVI. (1774-1792), 312- 
314, 323, 326-331, 336-338, 
342-343, 347; XVII., 380 ; XVIII. 
(1814, 1815-1824), 391-392. 

Louis Philippe (1830-1848), 348, 

397, 405. 
Louisburg, 206, 303. 
Louisiana, 289, 305, 364. 
Loyola (1491-1556), 206. 
Ludwig (843-876), 78. 



Lune'ville, Peace of, 363. 

Luther, Martin (1483-1546), 188- 

190. 
Lutherans, in Netherlands, 213. 
Liitzen, 236. 
Luxemburg, 442, 444. 
Lyons, 3, 129, 350. 

Macedonia, 456. 

MacMahon, Marshal (1808-1893), 
444, 452-453. 

Madras, 296. 

Magellan (d. 1521), 180. 

Magenta, 426. 

Magna Charta, 137. 

Magyars (mod-yarz'), 88-89, 101. 

Mahdi, the, 469. 

Mainz, 45, 149. 

Malplaquet (mal-pla-ka) , battle of, 
278. 

Manchuria, 472. 

Manila, 305. 

Mansart (1645-1708), 265. 

Marat (1744-1793), 333, 344. 

Marcel, Etienne (d. 1358), 153-154. 

Marchand, Colonel, 470. 

Marco Polo, see Polo. 

Marengo, battle of, 363. 

Maria Theresa (1740-1780), 295- 
296, 301-302, 305, 309. 

Marie Antoinette (1755-1793), 313, 
323, 327, 342-343. 

Marie Louise, the Empress (1791- 
1847), 374. 

Marie de' Medici (1573-1642), 230. 

Mark, county of, 265. 

Marlborough, duke of (1650-1722), 
278-279. 

Marston Moor, 250. 

Mary, Tudor (1553-1558), 199-200; 
Stuart (reigned 1542-1567), 211- 
212, 216-217, 219 ; queen of Will- 
iam III. (1662-1694), 264, 270,. 
275; of Modena (1658-1718), 
270. 

Massachusetts, 243-244. 



496 



INDEX 



Maurice of Orange (1567-1625), 219, 

231. 
Maximilian, of Austria (1493-1519), 

177, 189 ; emperor of Mexico (1832- 

1867), 430, 437. 
May Laws, 450. 
Mayors of the Palace, 55, 59. 
Mazarin, Cardinal (1602-1661), 254, 

260. 
Mazeppa, 281. 

Mazzini (mat-se'ne, d. 1872), 412. 
Mediatization, 371. 
Meliemet Ali (ma/he-met a'le), 

(1769-1849), 396, 422. 
Merchant Adventurers, company of, 

226. 
Merovingians, 55, 67. 
Methodius, 100. 
Methuen Treaty, 278. 
Metric system, 352. 
Metternich, Prince (1773-1859), 392- 

395, 406-407. 
Metz, 198, 444-445. 
Mexico, 217, 221, 430-431, 437. 
Michelangelo (1475-1564), 181. 
Middle Ages, 17, 166, 167, 200. 
Milan, 128, 173, 177-178, 208, 277, 

283, 357, 407. 
Milton, John (1608-1674), 260. 
Minden, bishopric of, 265. 
Mirabeau, count de (1749-1791), 

331, 333. 
Missi, 57, 74. 

Missionaries, 43-44, 71, 100. 
Mississippi Bubble, 289. 
Mohacs, battle of, 193, 276. 
Mohammed (571-632), 46-48. 
Mohammedans, 46-51, 109-114, 162- 

163. 
Moliere (mo-ly§r), (1622-1673), 265. 
Moltke (1800-1891), 434, 443, 444. 
Monasteries, 334, 420. 
Monasticism, 40-43. 
Moniteur, the, 333. 
Monk, General (1608-1670), 256. 
Monmouth, duke of (1649-1685) , 269. 



Monroe Doctrine, 395. 
Mont-Saint-Michel, 93-94. 
Montcalm, marquis de (1712-1759), 

303. 
Montenegro, 454, 456. 
Montlhery (moh-la-re), 95. 
Montrose, earl of (1612-1650), 250. 
Moors, 163, 179, 209. 
Moravians, 63. 

Moreau, General (1761-1813), 363. 
Moscow, 279. 
Miinster, 71, 210. 
Muscovy, 161. 

Nantes, Edict of, 220-221, 234, 267- 
268. 

Naples, kingdom of, 139, 177-178, 
208, 277, 371, 377, 395, 404, 408- 
409, 413, 427-428. 

Napoleon I., Bonaparte (1804-1814, 
1815), 352, 356-365, 368-382 ; III. 
(1852-1870), 412, 414-415, 420- 
421, 423-425, 426-428, 430-431, 
436-438, 441-444. 

Narva, battle of, 281. 

Naseby, battle of, 250. 

Nassau, 438. 

National Assembly, the French, 
327 ff. 

National Liberals in Germany, 460. 

Navarino, battle of, 396. 

Navarre, 72, 212, 219. 

Navigation Acts, 253, 262, 306, 388. 

Necker, Jacques (1732-1804), 316, 
326, 328-329. 

Nelson, Lord (1758-1805), 358, 369. 

Netherlands, under Charles V., 190; 
Reformation in, 192, 213 ; under 
Philip II., 208-216, 221 ; attempt 
of Louis XIV. to seize, 263 ; be- 
come Austrian, 283 ; revolt, 319 ; 
French occupation, 346, 350, 353, 
357 ; united with Holland, 382 ; 
become Belgium, 398 ; see also 
Dutch. 

Neustria, 55. 



INDEX 



497 



New England, 306. 

Newfoundland, 283. 

New Orleans, 364 ; battle of, 378. 

New York, 262. 

Nice, 346. 

Nicea, council of, 7, 40. 

Nicholas, Tsar of Russia (1825- 

1855), 396, 413, 422-424 ; II., 472. 
Nihilism in Russia, 458. 
Nikopolis, 162. 
Nimes, 3, 5. 

Nobles, origin of, 12, 58, 59. 
Non-jurors in France, 336-337, 338. 
Normandy, 102, 104, 135. 
North German Confederation, 438- 

439, 446. 
Northmen, 85-88, 101. 
Norway, 87, 382. 
Notables, Assembly of, 323. 
Notre Dame Cathedral, 168, 365. 
Nystad, Peace of, 281, 291. 

O-dS-va-car (d. 493), 26, 28. 

Olmtitz, humiliation of, 413. 

Ordeals, 15-16. 

Orleanists, the, 452. 

Orleans, 159 ; duke of, regent (1674- 

1723), 284, 289, 291. 
Ostrogoths, 14, 16, 25, 28-31. 
Othman, 162. 

Otto, the Great (936-973), 85, 89. 
Oxford, 157, 168. 

Paderborn, 210. 

Palatinate, Rhenish, 210, 233, 236, 
276. 

Panama Canal, the, 461. 

Pantheon, 9. 

Papacy, early history, 39-40, 57, 
67-69, 101, 103 ; investiture strug- 
gle, 105-109, 114 ; and Frederick 
I., 128 ; Innocent III., 136, 137, 
138-139 ; ruin of the Empire, 139- 
140 ; later history, 141, 144-145, 
156-157 ; councils, 160, 161 ; Re- 
naissance, 173-174 ; and the Ref- 



ormation, 185, 188, 189, 190, 193 ; 
papal restoration, 206 ; in nine- 
teenth century, 444, 453. 

Paper money in France, 289, 359. 

Papinian (d. 212), 4. 

Paris, 54, 88, 153-154, 168-169, 214- 
215, 254, 328-329, 331, 334, 337- 
338, 343-345, 348, 349-350, 352, 
397, 405, 409, 443, 444, 445-446 ; 
count of, 86, 405, 451, 452 ; Peace 
of (1763), 305, (1815), 382, 
(1856), 425. 

Parlements, French, 144, 229, 305, 
323. 

Parliament, English, origin, 137, 
142-143 ; under Henry VII. and 
the Reformation, 195, 199, 200, 
216; controversy with James I., 
227-228 ; struggle with Charles I., 
241-243 ; Long Parliament, 245- 
253 ; and Cromwell, 254-256 ; at 
the Restoration, 259-260, 202, 
264, 268; Revolution of 1688, 
269-270 ; supremacy established, 
275 ; the cabinet system, 292-294 ; 
and the colonies, 306-307 ; anti- 
revolutionary legislation, 351 ; 
reform, 387-388, 399 ; later legis- 
lation, 415-416, 453-454; Home 
Rule Question, 461, 464-465. 

Parma, duchy of, 290, 291. 

Parthenon, 276. 

Pascal (1623-1662), 265. 

Peace Congress of 1899, the, 472. 

Peace of God, 122. 

Peasants, in the Roman Empire, 11- 
12 ; after the fall of the Empire, 
59-60 ; under Charlemagne, 74- 
75 ; in the feudal system, 92-96, 
120, 122 ; the Jacquerie, 153-154 ; 
Peasants' Revolt in England, 154- 
155 ; revolt in Germany, 191-192 ; 
in Prussia during the eighteenth 
century, 295, 317 ; in England, 
320-321 ; in France, 321-322 ; 
condition improved by French 



498 



INDEX 



Revolution, 330, 336 ; serfdom 
abolished in Prussia, 375-376 ; 
serfdom abolished in Austria, 
410 ; in Russia, 429-430 ; Glad- 
stone's reforms for Ireland, 454. 

Peking, 471, 472. 

Penance, 187. 

Peru, 217. 

Peter, the Great (1682-1725), 279- 
281. 

Peter, the Hermit (d. 1115), 112. 

Petition of Right, 243. 

Petrarch (1304-1374), 170-172. 

Philip II., of France (1180-1223), 
134-137, 140; IV. (1285-1314), 
143-145; VI. (1328-1350), 152; 
II., of Spain (1556-1598), 208- 
209, 211, 213-221, 226 ; V. (1700- 
1746), 277-278, 290-291. 

Philippines, 277, 470-471. 

Piacenza, 291. 

Piedmont, 290, 368. 

Pitt, William, earl of Chatham 
(1708-1778), 303, 307. 

Pitt, William, the younger (1759- 
1806), 342. 

Pius, Pope, V. (1566-1572), 206; 
IX. (1846-1878), 403, 412. 

Pizarro (d. 1541), 208. 

Plassey, battle of, 304. 

Plevna, siege of, 456. 

Plymouth, 243. 

Poitiers (pwa-te-a), battle of, 153. 

Poland, origin, 63, 100-101; union 
with Lithuania, 161 ; loses suze- 
rainty of Prussia, 265 ; gains Po- 
dolia, 276 ; attacked by Charles 
XII., 280-281; succession war, 
291-292 ; first partition, 308-309 ; 
second, 346, 348 ; third, 353 ; 
grand duchy of Warsaw, 372, 
382 ; revolt of 1830, 398 ; revolt 
of 1863, 430. 

Polo, Marco (1254-1324), 176. 

Poltava, battle of, 281. 

Polytechnic school at Paris, 352. 



Pondicherri, 296-297, 304. 

Port Arthur, 471. 

Port Royal, 274. 

Porto Rico, 275, 471. 

Portugal, origin, 72, 109, 163 ; mari- 
ners, 176, 180 ; colonies, 180, 208, 
225, 226 ; Methaen treaty with 
England, 278 ; reforms in, 319 ; 
seized by Napoleon, 373-374. 

Prayer Book, 245, 255. 

Presbyterians, 231, 245, 250, 260. 

Pressburg, Peace of, 371. 

Prime minister, office of, 292-293. 

Printing, invention of, 174-175. 

Protestantism, origin of the name, 
194 ; rise of, 184 ff. ; spread of, 
192, 195-196, 209, 211 ; rights 
granted in France, 220-221 ; at 
Peace at Westphalia, 236 ; driven 
from France, 267-268. 

Provence (pro-vohs), 83, 84, 177. 

Prussia, origin, 140 ; becomes a 
duchy, 192 ; united with Bran- 
denburg, 232 ; relieved from 
suzerainty of Poland, the Great 
Elector, 264-265, 268 ; becomes a 
kingdom, 278 ; under Frederick 
William I., 294-295 ; under Fred- 
erick II., 295-296, 301-303, 305, 
308-309, 316-318; partition of 
Poland, 308-309, 348, 352-353; 
war with France, 342-343, 346, 
352-353 ; defeated by Napoleon, 
370, 371 ; reform in, 375-376 ; 
gains in 1815, 382 ; after 1815, 
389-390 ; customs union, 389-390, 
421-422 ; from 1848 to 1850, 406- 
407, 410-411, 413; "conflict" 
time, 428-429; rivalry with Aus- 
tria, 434-439 ; North German 
Confederation, 439-440; war with 
France, 441-445 ; founds the Ger- 
man empire, 446 ; Kulturkampf, 
450 ; see also Brandenburg. 

Purgatory. 187. 

Puritans," 230-231, 241 ff., 255. 



INDEX 



499 



Pym, John (1584-1643), 245, 250. 

Quakers, 260. 

Quatres Bras (katr-bra), battle of, 

381. 
Quebec, 303. 

Racine (1630-1609), 265. 
Railways, 388, 390-301, 410-420. 
Raphael (1483-1520), 181. 
Rastadt, Peace of, 283. 
Ravenna, 3, 22. 
Ravensberg, county of, 265. 
Reason, worship of, 350. 
Recusants, 217, 230. 
Reformation, 184 ff. ; in Germany, 

188-102, 194-195, 198-199; in 

France, 195-198, 200 ; in England, 

194-195, 199-200 ; in Switzerland, 

192-193 ; in other countries, 192, 

204, 209, 211. 
Reichstag (richs'tag), 440, 450. 
Reign of Terror, 340-350. 
Renaissance, 167-181, 185-187. 
Restitution, Edict of, 234. 
Restoration, the English, 256, 250- 

260 ; in France, 380. 
Revolutionary tribunal, 348-350. 
Richard I., of England (1180-1199), 

134-135; II. (1377-1399), 158; 

III. (1483-1485), 178. 
Richelieu (resh-lye), (1585-1642), 

233-237. 
Roads, Roman, 3, 34; German, 390; 

French, 391. 
Robert, the Strong (d. 866), 86. 
Robespierre, M. (1758-1794), 343, 

346, 349-350. 
Rochambeau, count de (1725-1807), 

316. 
Rodney, Admiral (1718-1792), 816. 
Roland, Madame (1754-1793), 346, 

350. 
Roman Empire, 1-17; "Fall" of, 

26 ; see also Holy Boman Empire. 
Roman law, 31, 37, 128, 160. 



Rome, 4, 5, 9, 22, 31, 60, 127, 128, 
171-173, 194, 412, 428, 412, 444, 
453. 

Roses, Wars of the, 178. 

Liossbach, battle of, 302. 

Rouen, 88, 127, 160. 

Rumania, 61, 162, 305, 422, 456. 

Russia, origin, 61, 63, 101, I'M ; 
under Peter the Great, 270-281 ; 
Polish succession, 291 ; and 
Frederick the Great, 301-302 ; 
armed neutrality, 315 ; Catli 
erine II. and the partitions or 
Poland, 307-300, 310, 342, 81 S, 
353; Alexander I., 369-371, 378- 
379, 380, 382, 308 ; and the Revo- 
lution of 1818, 413; Crimean 
War, 422-425 ; reforms under 
Alexander II., 420-430; Russo- 
Turkish War, 454-456 ; nihilism, 
458 ; recent history, 450, 468, 
471-17:.\ 

Russo-Turkish War, 454-456, 459. 

Ryswick, Peace of, 274. 

Sadowa, 437. 

Saint Bartholmew, Massacre of, 

214-215. 
Saint Germain, Peace, 212. 
Saint Petersburg, 280. 
Saint Sophia, 32-33. 
Salic Law, 150. 

Salzburg, archbishopric of, 294. 
San Domingo, 364. 
San Stefano, Treaty of, 456. 
Saracens, 48-51, 123, 168. 
Sardinia, kingdom of, 277, 283, 200- 

292, 319, 382, 403, 420-421, 421, 

426-428. 
Savonarola (1452-1498), 178. 
Savoy, 84, 273, 278, 283, 290-291, 

846, 350, 420-427. 
Saxons, 14, 27, 55-56, 66,69-71, 84. 
Saxony, first duchy of, 108, 129; 

second duchy and electorate, 1 19, 

188, 108, 210, 201, 295; kingdom 



500 



INDEX 



of, 371, 380, 382, 390, 413, 437- 

438. 
Schleswig-Holstein, the duchies of, 

408, 410, 435-436, 438. 
Scholasticism, 169-170. 
Schomberg, Marshal (1615-1690), 

274. 
Scotland, 43, 44, 45, 143, 211, 216, 

219, 244-245, 246, 247, 250-251, 

253, 270, 284. 
Sebastopol, 424. 
Secularization of Church States in 

Germany, 363. 
Sedan, battle of, 444. 
Seigneur (san-yer), the term, 58. 
Separatists, 243, 260. 
September massacres, 343-345. 
Serbs, 61. 
Serfdom, 58, 92-95, 120-122, 295, 

317, 375, 410, 429, 430. 
Servia, 422, 454, 456, 458. 
Seven Years' War, 299-305, 316. 
Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), 

218. 
Sicily, 109, 139, 163, 208, 277, 283, 

404, 408, 413, 427. 
Sieyes, the Abb6 (se-ess) (1748- 

1836), 327, 360-361. 
Silesia, 296, 305, 316. 
Silver increase of, 227. 
Simon de Montfort (d. 1218), 138; 

earl of Leicester (d. 1265), 142. 
Simony, 106. 

Sixteenth of May, the, 452. 
Slavery, 11, 12, 59, 72, 352, 399. 
Slavs, 55, 60-61, 63, 72, 99-101, 

127 ; see also Bohemia, Bulgaria, 

Poland, Russia, Servia. 
Slovacs, 63. 

Sobieski, John (1674-1696), 276. 
Social Democrats, 461. 
Socialists, the, 460-461, 467: 
Solferino, battle of, 427. 
Sophia, electress of Hanover (d. 

1714), 275. 
Soudan, 469-470. 



South African Republic, 462, 470. 

South Sea Company, 290. 

Spain, invaded by Germans, 22-23 ; 
by Moslems, 49, 111 ; Moorish 
civilization, 123, 124 ; the Chris- 
tian kingdoms, 111, 163 ; Castile 
and Aragon united, 179 ; colonies, 
180, 208, 226 ; under Charles V., 
190, 199; under Philip II., 208- 
209, 221 ; in the Thirty Years' 
War, 233, 235, 236 ; and Crom- 
well, 255; Louis XIV. and the 
struggle for Spanish heritage, 262- 
263, 277-279, 281-284, 291 ; wars 
with England, 292, 304, 305, 315 ; 
Peace of 1795, 353, 358 ; loses Lou- 
isiana, 364 ; seized by Napoleon, 
374-375, 379 ; loss of colonies, 
394-395, 470-471; candidature for 
Spanish throne, 442. 

Spanish language, 5. 

Spanish Succession, War of, 278- 
279, 281-284. 

Spenser, Edmund (1552-1599), 218. 

Spice Islands, 180, 226. 

Spinning, 320. 

Stamp Act, 307. 

Stanislaus Leszcynski (lesh-tsen'- 
ske), (1677-1766), 281, 291. 

Stanislaus Poniatowski (1764-1795), 
308. 

Star Chamber, court of, 246. 

States General, French, 144-145, 
153, 177, 229-230, 326-327. 

States of the Church, origin of the, 
68, 69, 357, 377, 427-428, 444, 453. 

Stein, Baron vom, 375-376. 

Stephen, king of Hungary (997, 
1000-1038), 101. 

Stephen of Blois (1135-1154), 116. 

Stilicho (d. 408), 21-22. 

Strafford, earl of (1593-1641), 244- 
246. 

Subinfeudation, 91. 

Suevi, 21, 23. 

Suez Canal, 455, 459, 469. 



INDEX 



f)01 



Suffren (1726-1788), 315. 

Sully, duke of (1560-1641), 229-230. 

Sweden, 87, 101, 102 ; Gustavus 
Adolphus, 235-230 ; Charles XII., 
280-281, 291 ; later history, 341, 
372, 382. 

Swiss, 148, 192, 363, 368. 

Swiss guards, 343. 

Syria, 48. 

Taille (ta'ye), 229, 322-323. 

Tamerlane (1333-1405), 163. 

Tariffs, 331, 389-390, 399, 421-422, 
460. 

Taxation, in Roman Empire, 9-11 ; 
in Frankish kingdom, 58, 74 ; in 
feudal times, 92, 115; according 
to the Great Charter, 137 ; of 
clergy, 143-144 ; poll tax, 155 ; 
papal, 157 ; royal, in France, 177, 
229, 266, 313, 322, 330 ; in Eng- 
land, 227-228, 244, 254, 260, 266, 
269, 275 ; see also Tariffs. 

Telegraph, 419. 

Templars, 145. 

Temporal power of the popes ; see 
States of the Church. 

Test Act, 264. 

Tetzel (d. 1519), 188. 

Teutonic knights, 140, 192. 

Theodoric (493-526), 28-31. 

Theodosius (379-395), 17. 

Therm idor, the 9th, 350. 

Thiers (te-er), L. A. (1797-1877), 
396, 443, 445, 451-452. 

Thirty Years' War, 231-236, 265. 

Thomas a Becket (1118-1170), 131. 

Tilly (1559-1632), 233, 235. 

Tilsit, Peace of, 371. 

Tipu, Sultan, 358. 

Toleration, 199, 200, 220, 236, 275. 

Tonnage and poundage, 227, 246. 

Tories, 268-269, 275, 454. 

Toulon, 350. 

Towns, rise of, 120 ff., see also 
Cities. 



Trade, 60, 123, 152, 180, 226-227, 

253, 262-263, 278, 283, 288-290, 

292, 306-307, 331, 351, 372-373, 

377-378, 387-390, 394, 419-422, 

460. 
Trade-unions, the, 453, 473. 
Trafalgar, battle of, 369. 
Trans-Siberian railway, 471. 
Transylvania, 441. 
Trent, council of, 204, 207. 
Trichinopli, 300. 
Triple Alliance, the, 459, 468, 
Trochu (tro-shii), General (1815- 

1896), 444. 
Tromp, van, Admiral (1629-1691), 

255. 
Truce of God, 122. 
Tudors, in England, 178 ff. 
Tuileries, palace of, 332, 343, 446. 
Turenne (1611-1675), 254. 
Turgot (tur-go), (1727-1781), 313. 
Turkish empire, 162-163, 193, 276, 

308-309, 319, 341, 395-396, 422- 

425, 454-458, 468-469. 
Turks, the Seljuk, 109-114; the 

Ottoman, 162-163. 
Tuscany, duchy of, 291-292, 316, 

403, 412, 426-427; see also 

Florence. 
Twelve Years' Truce, 221, 229, 233. 

Ulphilas (311-381), 16. 

Ulpian (d. about 228), 4. 

United Provinces, 216, 220-221, 
231, 233, 253, 262-264 ; see also 
Dutch, Holland, and Nether- 
lands. 

United States, independence of, 314- 
316 ; and the French Revolution, 
341, 351 ; Louisiana, 364 ; the 
Continental Blockade, 372-373 ; 
1812 war, 378 ; and Spanish colo- 
nies, 394-395 ; emigration to, 416 ; 
and Napoleon III., 431 ; tariff of, 
466 ; war with Spain, 470-471. 

Universities, rise of, 168-170, 174. 



502 



INDEX 



Urban II. (1088-1099), 111-112. 
Utrecht, Union of, 216 ; Peace of, 
281, 290. 

Valens (364-378), 17. 

Valmy, battle of, 346. 

Valtelline, 233. 

Vandals, 14, 21, 23, 24, 25, 31. 

Varennes, flight to, 337, 342. 

Vassals, 74-75, 90-93. 

Vatican council, 450. 

Vendeen insurrection, 349. 

Venetia, 438. 

Venice, 123, 138, 150, 173, 177, 276, 

357, 382, 428. 
Verdun, 78. 

Vergennes (1717-1787), 314. 
Versailles, 265-266, 327-328, 331. 
Veto, right of, in France, 331. 
Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, I. 

of Italy (1849, 1861-1878), 412, 

419-421, 424, 426-428, 436, 442, 

444, 449, 453. 
Victoria, Queen (1837-1901), 462. 
Vienna, Congress of, 380, 382. 
Virginia, 226. 

Visigoths, 14, 16-17, 21-25, 27, 49. 
Voyagers, 176. 
Vulgate, the, 4, 75, 175, 186. 

Wagram, battle of, 374. 

Waldenses, 138, 

Wales, 143. 

Wall, of Aurelian, 13 ; of Hadrian, 2. 

Wallenstein (1583-1634), 234-235. 

Walpole, Sir Robert (1676-1745), 

292-294. 
Wandiwash, battle of, 304. 
Warsaw, grand duchy of, 372, 376. 
Washington, George (1732-1799)', 

301, 316, 341, 351. 
Waterloo, battle of, 380-381. 



Watt, James (1736-1819), 320, 

377. 
Wellington, duke of (1769-1852), 

374, 379, 381. 
Went worth, see Strafford. 
Wergeld, 15. 

West Indian Company, Dutch, 226. 
Westminster Hall, 251. 
Westphalia, Peace of, 236, 372; 

kingdom of, 376. 
Whigs, the, 268, 275. 
Whitby, 57. 
Whitehall, 252*. 
William : I., of England (1066-1087), 

102-104; III. (1689-1702), 253, 

264, 270, 273-278 ; L, of Germany 

(1861, 1871-1888), 429, 436-438, 

442-443, 446, 449, 459, 461 ; II. 

(1888 ), 461, 466; I. of 

Orange (1533-1584), 213-216 ; II. 

253 ;L, of the Netherlands (1815- 

1840), 398. 
William of Occam (d. 1347), 170. 
Wittenberg, 189, 191. 
Wolfe, General (1727-1759), 303. 
Worcester, battle of, 253. 
Wordsworth, William (1770-1850), 

341. 
Workmen, 11, 60, 93, 123, 227, 314, 

320, 331, 390, 453, 473. 
Worms, Diet of, 190. 
Wiirtemberg, 371, 393, 437, 440, 

446. 
Wurzburg, 45, 209-210. 
Wy cliff e, John (d. 1384), 157-158, 

169. 

Yorck, General (1759-1830), 379. 
Yorkists, 178. 

Zeeland, 215.- 

Zwingli, Ulrich (1484-1531), 193. 



